Human Profile

Chapter 5 Human Factors in Aviation Security Contents Page INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Background on Human Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 FAA AND HUMAN FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 FAA Policy and Plans for Human Factors and Aviation Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 FAA Requirements for Aviation Security: Human-Factors Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Other Issues for Human Factors and Profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Policy Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Box Box Page 5-A. UAL Hi-Tech Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Chapter 5 Human Factors in Aviation Security factors in these cases can greatly improve the utilization of technology for airline security. Dramatic accidents caused by human errors in the nuclear power, chemical, and transportation industries have increased public attention to human performance issues during the past decade. Additional training requirements, revised operating procedures, warning devices, and expanded government oversight are typical recommendations following accident investigations.However, these stopgap measures address only the surface of problems that are rooted in the complex interactions of people and equipment within the larger system and the institutional and organizational structures and procedures that drive the planning, design, and management of these systems. Following the ground collision of two jetliners in Detroit in December 1990, Dr. John Lauber, a member of the National Tr ansportation Board, said that â€Å"basically the [aviation] system, the way we’re operating it, almost demands nearly error-free [human] performance. Similar concerns can be echoed for the aviation security system—a number of successful airline terrorist events have been traced to a human failure. 2 â€Å"The challenge is to design a system. . which is tolerant of those errors when they do occur and which detects and traps them before we have [a catastrophe]. †3 Multilayered defenses are employed at many commercial airports and airline terminals, and security managers and government authorities are turning to new technologies to buttress these systems. Heretofore, Federal requirements and industry use of security technologies have usually been with specific functions in mind.As long as the technical goals could be met effectively, the equipment was considered satisfactory and human performance problems related to the technology were resolved through revised tr aining and procedures. Technology use in counterterrorism will likely increase dramatically over the next decade, but if early and INTRODUCTION Human resources are critical to aviation security. Security personnel—passenger and baggage screeners, guards and law enforcement officers, and airport and airline employees in general-are important elements of a system that prevents and deters hostile acts against air carriers.Technology can enhance, but cannot replace, the capabilities of these people and the many services they provide. Moreover, management practices based on behavioral research findings can further improve human performance. This chapter considers the function of screeners in weapons and explosives detection, and the role of guards, officers, and other aviation employees in discovering (and deterring) suspicious individuals or situations. Within the past 20 years, technology has greatly increased the capability and productivity of these security people.Metal detect ors and x-ray devices are faster, more accurate, and more socially acceptable tools for screening passengers and baggage than manual searches. Remote television and other monitoring devices, computer-controlled access to restricted areas, and communication and data systems allow comprehensive surveillance and threat assessment. While these technologies raise the capabilities of a security system to new levels, their ultimate success and actual performance depend on the people who design, operate, and maintain them.Many security assignments require repetitive tasks and close monitoring for rare events— functions that humans perform poorly. Selecting well-suited individuals, training them properly, designing their work environment and rotation schedule to elicit the best possible performance, and providing motivating incentives are fundamental requirements for successful operations, regardless of the type of technology in place. These functions involve human performance; applic ation of human p. A17. IJohn Lauber quoted by John H. Cushmau Jr. , â€Å"Test for Aviation: Coping with Human Shortcomings,†The New York Times, Dec. 0, 1990, ~ne example was the destruction of a Korean Air Lines flight over the Andaman Sea by a bomb planted by North Korean agents. The device, in a carry-on bag, was ahnost detected at a security checkpoint in Baghdad at an earlier stop. When a security guard wished to remove the batteries from a radio, one terrorist turned the radio on, proving it operated, and then raised a hue and cry, yelling and complaining. Instead of using this as a reason to stop the two suspect individuals and to examine their belongings minutely, the security forces decided to avoid trouble by allowing them to proceed. Lau~r, op. cit. , footnote 1. –79– 80 q Technology Against Terrorism: Structuring Security methodic attention is not given to human performance issues, we may expect that system efficiency and effectiveness will be substa ntially impaired. Background on Human Error The human role in a security system is complex; thus the nature of human errors, from mental to physical, varies widely. Mental or cognitive errors can include improper judgment or decisionmaking, while physical errors may stem from motor skill deficiencies or faulty equipment design.A combination of physical and mental processes may influence other kinds of errors, such as those involving communication, perception, or alertness. Human factors, a discipline combining behavioral sciences and engineering, focuses on improving the performance of complex systems of people and machines. Designing and operating a system so that it does not induce human error (in fact, designing it so that human error may be minimized) is one critical component of human factors and limiting the impact of a human error once it occurs is another aspect.Many types of human error are systematic, following certain predictable patterns; once these patterns are identifi ed, countermeasures can be developed. For example, poor location of switches or dials can induce manual or perceptual errors. For those types of human error that do not follow predictable patterns, mitigation techniques are difficult to develop. Some examples of mitigation techniques include automatic monitoring and warning devices. These subsystems, when properly designed and implemented, can be invaluable tools for negating human error.Employee selection—allowing into the system only those people least likely to make mistakes— and continued quality control maintained through training and monitoring are basic steps for minimizing human errors. Potential errors can be forestalled by the use of standard procedures and checklists for routine and emergency tasks, planning work shifts and assignments so as not to induce inattention and 4EM1 L. hlC. , fatigue, and properly designing the work environment. â€Å"If human factors engineering is done properly at the conceptual and design stage, the cost is high, but paid only once.If tranin g must compensate for poor design, the price is paid every day. † 4 According to one expert, there does not appear to be a strong need for new basic research in human factors related spectifically to security-behavioral science findings in general and experience with human performance problems in other industries are probably sufficient to enhance current security operations. 5 For example, such knowledge is being used to upgrade security screener selection by airlines, and to improve training standards.However, the mechanisms to identify early on and to address effectively the human performance issues stemming from new security technologies, such as explosives detection systems, are not yet in place in industry or the Federal Government. Shifting boring and repetitive tasks that people perform poorly to machines is an approach that can reduce errors. However, automated devices (or any new technology) may create new sources of human error. 6 Excessive false alarms unnecessarily distract operators and may lead to the device being ignored or disabled.During unusual or emergency circumstances, the lack of flexibility in many automated systems can be a serious limitation and the human backup may not be mentally or physically prepared (or possibly even capable) to take over. Consequently, a full system approach is required for reducing total human errors. FAA AND HUMAN FACTORS FAA Policy and Plans for Human Factors and Aviation Security In a report released in July 1988, OTA concluded that FAA attention to the spectrum of human performance problems in commercial aviation fell far short of the level warranted, since human error is the leading cause of aviation accidents. Later that same year, Congress passed the Aviation Safety Nagel wiener, $~cw~it Automation’ Hu~n ~ac~or~ in Aviation, Eu1 L. wiener and David c. (eds. ) (Sm Diego, CA: Academic PESS, 1988) p. 454. SH. c~fion FoUShee, c~ef scien~lc and Tec~~ Advi,qor for Human FaCto~, FAA p~so~ wmmunimtio~ 1991. 6see wiener, op. cit. , f~~ote 4, Ch. 13 for a discussion of new and subtle types of human error that have resulted from the introduction of automation into aircraft cockpits. W. S. Congress, OffIce of Technology Assessment Safe Skies for Tomorrow: Aviation Safefy in a Competitive Environnzent, O’E4-SET-381 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Offke, July 1988). Chapter 5-Hurnun Factors in Aviation Security q 81 Research Act, which directed the FAA to expand its research efforts on human performance in aviation and authorized funds specifically for that purpose. 8 The FAA responded by creating the position of Chief Scientific and Technical Advisor for Human Factors, responsible for coordinating for the FAA various human-factors research efforts within the FAA NASA, and the DOD and for opening lines of communication within the FAA and industry.Communication among Federal agencies is critical, since decisions made by the aviation industry and the operational and regulatory sections of the FAA often drive the need for new human-factors research and could benefit from an understanding of humanfactors research findings and products. The FAA has made progress in addressing the earlier criticism of its human-factors programs and understanding in aircraft and air traffic control (ATC) equipment and operations.However, the key shortcomings in FAA human-factors efforts that OTA cited in its 1988 study-insufficient agency expertise, uncoordinated research efforts, and regulations and certification standards that do not reflect human-factors principles-still exist within FAA civil aviation security programs. During the course of its study, OTA examined closely many of the technology development programs and regulatory efforts underway in the security sections of FAA and found a general lack of awareness and understanding of the human-factors issues involved with possible new security te chnologies.An exception to this situation, however, and a hopeful indicator of a new trend, has been the hiring of a human-factors expert at the FAA Technical Center to oversee human-factors research as it relates to airline security. However, at present, it appears that the FAA is ill-prepared to identify and address possible human-factors concerns with the increasingly complex and diverse security technologies now under development. The dearth of trained humanfactors specialists in areas of the FAA responsible for civil aviation security is a serious deficiency.Until recently, the Aviation Security R&D Service of the Technical Center would have merited similar concerns, but this shortcoming is being redressed, at least in part. Some of the expertise that the FAA is developing on human factors for other uses could also be applied to security issues. One potential vehicle for bringing human-factors knowledge into aviation security efforts is the National Plan for Aviation Human Fact ors (HF Plan), the first major product of the heightened FAA attention to human performance issues following the enactment of the Aviation Safety Research Act.The HF Plan identifies significant human performance issues and lays out a 10-year blueprint for establishing and coordinating research programs and conveying the results across Federal agencies and industry. The HF Plan’s development depended strongly on advisory committees composed of a cross-section of research, operational, and regulatory representatives from government and industry and approximately 50 of the nation’s leading human-factors researchers. The good news for aviation security is that the Plan appears to provide a strong foundation for multi- and cross-disciplinary efforts and understanding in human factors and has begun to institutionalize and focus consideration of human-factors issues in FAA decisionmaking. The bad news is that nowhere in the Plan is security mentioned—the Plan addresses the following five aviation environments only: aircraft flight deck, air traffic control, aircraft maintenance, airway facilities maintenance, and flight deck/ATC integration.This should not be construed as criticism of the general thrust of the HF Plan—the human-factors categories considered have historically been more critical to aviation safety and are considerably more complex than human performance issues in security-and it is beyond the scope of this study to analyze in detail the specifics of the HF Plan. However, some objectives and products of the HF Plan maybe directly transferable to aviation security, provided that lines of communication are established and security experts are included in committee structures.The Plan has eight objectives, all of which can apply to aviation security, but the following two are especially pertinent, given the present attention to technologies for countering terrorism: . to encourage the development of principles of ‘human-ce ntered’ automation and the design of SAviation Stieu Research [email  protected] I%blic bW 100-591. %J. S. Department of Transportation Fedeml Aviation Administratio~ â€Å"The National Plan For Aviation Human Factors,† vol. I, draf~ November 1990. 82 q Technology Against Terrorism: Structuring Security dvanced technology that will capitalize on the relative strengths of humans and machines; . to develop human factors-oriented validation and certification standards for aviation system hardware and personnel that will enhance both safety and efficiency . 10 The HF Plan is designed to be reexamined and revised periodically and aviation security could be added explicitly as a focus area if need and resources warrant. Crucial to the development and future success of the HF pian is the Human Factors Coordinating Committee (HFCC), formed by the FAA administra11 tor in September 1989.HFCC has representatives from each major division of FAA and serves as ‘‘an adv isory body for senior management of FAA in all matters involving human performance and [is] intended to assure that human factors issues are represented in all FAA activities. ’ ’12 Until very recently, the Assistant Administrator for Civil Aviation Security was not represented on this committee. However, this omission has since been recti13 critical-flight safety is at risk only when security performance fails at the same time that a threat occurs.Moreover, FAA staff and the agency â€Å"cul- ture† are predominantly interested in aviation technology and operations and protecting facilities and countering terrorism are not an inherent part of aviation, l4 However, the increasing Complexity of screening technologies and the continuing (possibly increasing) terrorist threat make the performance of aviation security systems more critical to flight safety. fied. Aviation terrorist events in the 1980s made apparent the shortcomings of the minimum Federal security req uirements.The FAA and the airlines both focused attention on screener selection and training, detection and screening technologies, and airline management of security programs and systems. The FAA has increased requirements and oversight of security personnel (selection, training, and management) and equipment (weapons and explosives detectors), but has not yet addressed how security personnel and equipment perform as components of a system. Screener Selection and Training For years, the people who screened airline passengers and baggage for domestic flights generally received little training, low wages, and few benefits.Consequently, alarmin g numbers of domestic 15 FAA Requirements for Aviation Security: Human-Factors Implications Aviation security personnel and equipment have received (and have not needed) the same level of regulatory and certification attention that the FAA places on flightcrew, air-traffic controllers, and ground support personnel and their respective aviation equipment. The FAA has focused its regulatory efforts on elements of the aviation system essential to flight safety. For example, the performance of pilots and aircraft systems are continuously critical for maintaining safety-a failure could cause an accident.On the other hand, the performance of the security system (other than as a deterrent) is rarely not screeners failed unannounced FAA tests (22 percent failure rate in 1988). 16 Since there has not been a severe domestic terrorist threat against aviation in the United States, these shortcomings have not resulted in life or property losses. 17 In light of public pressure following the Lockerbie disaster and costly fines stermming from FAA inspections, the Air Transport Association (ATA) developed an extensive set of screener selection, training, and compensation standards.ATA pro- 1%id. , p. 3. lllbid. , p. 28. l%id. , p. 28. lsundm tie FAA ~rga~tio~ s~c~e fi plaW in 1988 [email  protected] 1990, tie Office of Aviation Security wu represented @ the Executive Director for Regulatory Standards and Compliance, to whom it reported. 14fiowl~ge of aviation tw~olow ~d Operatiom i5 impo~t to fic~t ad @ofi s~ty. For e~ple, spec~ characteristics of aviatio~ Such as large volumes of people and luggage that must be screened quickly, drive the security system design and functions.IsHowever, ~~es ~ustom~y ~ve ~gher s~n~ds for security personuel working h ktWtEitiOlld OpelZitiOllS. 16Lpe Osmus, office of Aviation Security, FW, personal COllMIluIlktitiOIL Feb. 22, 1991. [email  protected] on tie deffitio~ he des~ction of a PSA ftight in 1987, caused by a disgruntled ex-emPIOYW Who Shot tie flying Crew in [email  protected] @@t aircraft be considered a terroris4 as well as criminal, act. In this case, theex-employee had an identifkation card with which he gained access to the so screener training was not an issue. Chapter 5-Human Factors in Aviation Security 83 posed that airlines (or their security contractors) 18 co nsider education and health criteria, the ability to speak English, and aptitude test results before hiring screeners, and that they offer competitive wages, benefits, and incentives and follow a comprehensive training curriculum. In March 1990, the ATA asked the FAA to adopt its proposal as requirements for all airlines. Based on this cooperative industry effort, the FAA has required some of these suggested upgrades in training measures for screeners. (Most U. S. irlines have adopted at least some of the ATA recommendations; the failure rate on random checks has since dropped significantly. )19 The FAA decided not to include selection and wage standards because such a change would require public comment (i. e. , through the Federal Register), thereby calling attention to perceived or actual security weaknesses. rewards to those who detect test weapons and explosives (and even higher rewards to those who find the real thing); and increasing wages to at least the â€Å"local prevail ing rate. For comparison, in Israel, screeners are paid at a level considered a â€Å"good† salary, far higher than minimum wage. In Switzerland, they are paid at the rate of about $lOper hour. In the United States, rates are often near minimum wage. Management Practices and Human Performance The FAA mandates certain positions in an airline’s organizational structure, such as a security director for the airline and security coordinators at each airport, but airline management practices and philosophy usually fall outside the scope of FAA 20 regulatory authority.In Safe Skies for Tomorrow, OTA found that the effect of airline operating or management practices on airline safety, and changes in those practices, were rarely addressed in FAA safety analyses. 21 The FAA's Human Factors plan cites the influence of management â€Å"culture† on human performance as one area where basic research is needed. 22 If the organizational â€Å"climate† (i. e. , working co nditions, wages, management, organizational culture, etc. ) does not allow an individual to perform at his or her peak, it may not matter how well he or she is trained or how well designed the technology is. 3 The ATA proposal for upgrading screener standards suggests giving screeners employee benefits common in many industries (vacation, holiday, medical) that contractors often don’t receive); offering to contractors the advantages of airline employment (e. g. , low-cost travel) and career opportunities to top performers; providing monetary The United Airlines’ approach to improving screener performance on all flights from selected airports delineates one set of management techniques (box 5-A). Another approach has been undertaken by American Airlines, lthough only for its international flights. 24 American treats its international screeners as part of the American team. They are hired as full-fledged airline employees, not employees of a contracted security agency, a nd enjoy the same salary levels and benefits that ticketing agents do. The educational level of entrants appears relatively high, with a few individuals having advanced degrees. There appears also to be a real opportunity for advancement within American Airlines, and not just in the security division.Before starting work, the entrants are brought to Dallas (from across the world; many screeners are hired from the countries in which they will be working) for 2 weeks of training at American’s headquarters. The training includes emphasis on the screening questions as well as on what to look for on the x-ray screens. The screeners ask the standard questions as to who packed the baggage and whether anyone could have placed contraband in it. But they also ask general questions regarding destination and travel plans, somewhat akin to the lines of questioning performed by El Al.Indeed, American has used Israeli security consultants in designing their security system. The screeners lo ok for a number of specific characteristics, which remain proprietary to the company. If too many of the characteristics match a passenger, the individual’s baggage will receive much closer inspection. Screeners are ro- 18Most scree~g for domestic flights in the United States is conducted by security Contractors, nOtairhe employC%S. l~we Osmus, op. cit. , footnote 16. ~u. s. Conwss, OffIce of Technology Assessment, op. it. ,fOOtiOte 7. 211bid. , p. 88. 22U. S. Department of Transportatio~ Federal Aviation Administration op. Cit. , fOOtnOte 9, p. 15. ‘Ibid. 24s0~~: Site visit t. D* [email  protected]% December 1$)90, and Homer [email  protected] Chief of Sedty, American Airlines, perSOIlal COmm~CatiO~ December 1990. 84 q Technology Against Terrorism: Structuring Security tated between looking at x-ray screens and interviewing passengers. Periodically, security systems are tested by contractors, who choose an American employee to play a terrorist.A specific scenario i s given to this impostor, and the reaction of the security personnel is noted. If they do not perform their functions, they may be subject to severe discipline, including termination. The result of the overall approach, using incentives and threat of discipline for negligence, appears to be a well-motivated and alert force. Box 5-A—UAL Hi-Tech Screening United Airlines is focusing on management practices in its program, called Hi-Tech Screening, to improve the quality of pre-departure screening and the public perception of this highly visible function.Begun in 1987 at Chicago O’Hare and San Francisco Airports, the program incorporated many of the selection and incentive steps later recommended in the ATA proposal, and also attempted to integrate technology and people by reconfiguring the screening environment to make it more pleasant for screeners and passengers as well as to improve operations. Although wages are still low, successful workers have the opportunity to j oin the UAL organization, instead of working as contract security personnel.Improvements include direct communication links to supervisors for oversight and advice to screeners, layout designed to minimize passenger delays, and multiple cues to passengers that security measures are being taken in a professional reamer (security supervisor in an elevated booth, passengers see themselves on video monitors as they go through metal detectors, signs describing procedures are clear and concise). United believes that the program has been successful to date in increasing public awareness and employee morale and competence.At Chicago, the employee attrition rate dropped by half and weapon detections and FAA test scores increased significantly (79 percent detection rate on FAA weapons tests prior to Hi-Tech and 92 percent subsequently). United has also installed Hi-Tech Screening systems in Denver, LOS Angeles, Seattle, and Washington Dunes, with plans for additional implementation in the fut ure. SOURCE: Site visit to O’Hare, April 1990, and Richard Davis, Operational Security, United Airlines, Jan. 3,1991.Security Equipment Currently, the FAA requires airlines to employ relatively few types of security equipment— primarily x-ray devices and metal detectors. The FAA established minimum performance standards for detecting weapons and explosives, and since these technologies are radiation-based, the FAA also requires that they meet Federal health and safety standards . 25 There are no standards governing operator interaction with the equipment, such as the layout of controls and display symbology options. At the time the FAA established x-ray and metal detector requirements (early 1970s), it had little expertise in human factors.Moreover, these technologies were relatively simple compared with aircraft cockpit and ATC consoles that the FAA had to certify without objective human-factors criteria, making humanfactors standards for security a relatively low pri ority. However, many behavioral experts argue that properly developed human-factors standards could improve system performance for aviation security as well as safety. In recent years, the FAA has issued regulations for security technologies-computer-controlled access at airports and explosive detection systems—that are considerably more complex and have wider system implications than x rays and metal detectors.As has is evidenced in the explosive detection system (EDS) regulations published in September 1989 26 and the subsequent performance of TNA, the only device to date that could meet the FAA standards. Beyond setting detection criteria, which are critical to the security system performance, the FAA also included requirements for throughput of the device (which is primarily an economics issue—see ch. 4) and a requirement for 100-percent automated detection decisionmaking. Several lines of reasoning could lead to a design goal of total automation, including lower o perating costs over the long run een commonly the case whenever new technology is used to solve a problem, attention is focused on the positive aspects of the technology—how effective it is—without giving full consideration to possible new human-factors problems caused by the technology. The lack of attention to man/ machine human-factors and system operating issues ~F~r ~xmple, ~. ray ~y~tms ~~~ P-Y for cW. on baggage must meet tie s~n~ds set by the Food and Drug Administration. x54 Federal Register 36938 (Sept. 5, 1989). Chapter 5-Human Factors in Aviation Security q 85 nd possibly removing human error from the operating loop. However, it maybe useful, and sometimes vital, to keep the human in the operating/decisionmaking loop, especially if he or she must respond during emergency or unusual conditions. As has been shown so far in TNA tests, the false alarm rate is well above earlier goals and human intervention is required quite often. While automation, in the conte xt of an EDS, is a useful tool, and total automation may be an understandable goal, requiring 100 percent automated functions in an EDS is not justified at this time.The E D S regulations provide an example of where input from a group such as the FAA’s Human Factors Coordinating Committee could help flag potentially troublesome human-factors aspects of security regulations. Airline passenger profiling, in most cases, must be fast (and consequently cursory) enough so as not to impose excessive delays. In other security contexts, such as screening for the â€Å"insider threat† profile within an organization where time is not so critical, much more detailed background data and questioning is possible.A different, although overlapping, form of profiling is used by law enforcement and investigatory agencies. Given pertinent data and evidence from a crime scene or threat, experts compile a profile of likely social, psychological, and physical characteristics of the criminal. However, much of the work and methodology could be transferred from one of the broad profiling regimes to the other. FAA Requirements for Profiling-Under Federal regulations, U. S. airlines must apply a relatively simple form of passenger profiling for international flights (e. g. questions regarding electronic devices), although airlines are not prohibited by FAA/DOT from conducting any form of profiling at any time. Whether or not a passenger is selected for closer scrutiny, such as a manual baggage search, depends on where his passport was issued (a factor that varies based on threat intelligence) and on responses to a series of questions aimed at identifying potential terrorist â€Å"dupes. † Additionally, airlines must conduct random baggage inspections on a small percentage of otherwise unselected passengers for each flight.These requirements do not apply to domestic flights or to foreign airlines, which results in an obvious gap in protection for Americans. The fact P assenger Profiling In-depth questioning of all airline passengers and detailed examin ation of each of their personal belongings and baggage is impossible in a modern transportation system. Since most of the millions of passengers that fly on U. S. airlines each year pose no security risk, targeting security resources on the small number of passengers who exhibit some elements of the threat â€Å"profile† is one way to increase security without clogging transportation flows. rofiling can be a valuable component of a transportation security system, providing an independent complement to hardware-based (and often more expensive) explosives and weapons detection technologies. Successful profiling depends on a large support system including comprehensive intelligence networks and threat analyses, information system technology to process large databases, behavioral research and analysis, and trained and motivated screening personnel.There are two general approaches to operational profiling. One compares passenger demographic and other background data (age, sex, nationality, travel itinerary, etc. ) to historic or recent intelligencederived â€Å"threat profiles. † The other is based on the examiner’s psychological assessment of the passenger, taking into account nervousness, hostility, or other suspicious characteristics. Most profiling systems currently use elements of both approaches to varying degrees. that foreign airlines that compete with U.S. airlines on international routes do not have to satisfy these requirements imposes an economic penalty on domestic carriers and weakens their ability to compete successfully with foreign carriers, which, in addition, are usually statesubsidized. Domestic airlines complain, with justification, that a â€Å"level playing field† should be established to avoid this unfair disadvantage. An option would be to compensate U. S. airlines for the additional costs, either from Federal subsidies or from the Airport Trust Fund. 7 Alternatively, foreign carriers could be required to apply similar security measures on flights landing in the United States to those demanded of U. S. carriers. The United States has forced better security practices in foreign 2% l$)7(j, Congress estiblishedaprecedent for compensating U. S. air carriers forsecuritymeasures incurred in international operatiombyautioritig nearly $10 million for fiscal years 1976-78 (Public Law 94-353, sec. 24). In 1982, Congress extended the authorized limit to $15 million (Public Law 97-248, sec. 24(d). Nearly this much was actually disbursed to four U. S. carriers. 84 q Technology Against Terrorism: Structuring Security revocation of landing rights of carriers from those countries in the absence of improvements. airports by threatening coordinating security management decisions and for providing a conduit for a detailed database. 30 The FAA is considering making CPSP mandatory, but a number of carriers oppose it, citing se curity officer vigilance problems caused by distraction by computer keyboard and display.Knowledgeable FAA and airline personnel claim that airline opposition stems mainly from the increased oversight capabilities that such a system would give the FAA CPSP would provide a detailed record of all airline profiling actions (and errors or failures) that could be used for civil penalty proceedings. Presently, the FAA oversees airline profiling procedures through random or scheduled field visits. The FAA counters that if a would-be malefactor sneaks through, CPSP also can provide documented proof that the airline followed FAA-required procedures, shifting some liability for a profiling failure to the FAA. 1 Additionally, there is substantial U. S. airlines operating on European routes have been permitted to substitute their own profiling programs for FAA requirements. 28 Most U. S. airlines and many foreign carriers conduct more extensive profile screening than minimum FAA requirements at foreign airports and some U. S. international gateways. Some airlines train their international employees in profiling techniques while others hire contractors to handle security for their international flights.Proprietary profiling procedures used by these airlines are modeled generally on the Israeli El Al method of profiling which is more comprehensive (and intrusive) than FAA requirements and reportedly includes psychological, social, and political factors. Complaints by certain groups, such as Arab-Americans, claiming harassment, stem from carrier-initiated profiling, not Federal requirements. 29 During the past 5 years, the FAA has developed and tested a computer-based profiling tool aimed at potential terrorist hijackers and saboteurs.The Comprehensive Passenger Screening Profile (CPSP) is both a checklist and decision aid for field officers and a data collection system to support profiling enhancements. It encompasses the current FAA required profiling procedures plus addit ional factors based on a data profile of terrorists, using historical and intelligence sources. The decision process for selecting a passenger for further examination is automated through a series of mathematically weighted yes/no questions (some of which do not require passenger interviews), that the security officer responds to via a keyboard.CPSP is designed for easy modication if intelligence or data analysis indicates a need. In early 1990, the FAA offered CPSP as an option for airlines to meet profiling requirements. Continental Airlines and United Airlines have tested versions of CPSP at a few locations, and have been generally pleased with its performance, especially as a tool for centrally ~ho [email  protected] FAA htelligence, personal communication Oct. 1*, 1990%llid. analytic value to the large data set that would come from CPSP.As discovered during TNA testing, little is known about the baseline average passenger and baggage; therefore, general background data, regar dless of how well CPSP works operationally, would be valuable for security planning. No names of passengers are (or legally can be) included in such a data set maintained by the Federal Government. 32 However, as private entities, airlines can and do maintain such lists. Other Issues for Human Factors and Profiling Research and Development Due to security and proprietary concerns, profiling systems in place today are shrouded in secrecy.The technical aspects of their development and quantitative measures of their performance are difficult to obtain, although the widespread use at airports across the world attest to airline confidence in profiling Given industry acceptance of profiling technology, the unregulated environment in which profiling systems were developed, and the potential enhanced capabilities and future needs, there is a ~JO~Be~~l~q Director, Comorate s~~~, COntinenM fi~es, ~rson~ commtication, od. 15, 1990 and Glen W- Director, @XtitiOI. Ud Security, United Airlines, p ersonal communication, Oct. 6, 1990. 31c)P. cit. , footnote 27. qzfiid. Chapter 5-Human Factors in Aviation Security q 87 role for a concerted Federal (DOT) effort in profiling R. The primary research fields of interest are in the behavioral sciences and in large database collection and analysis. A useful but neglected approach would be to investigate the role of cultural differences in establishing profiles. Since patterns of behavior considered anomalous in one culture are normal in others, understanding cultural effects better could lead to more effective and, possibly, less discriminatory use of profiles. 3 Relevant behavioral research with applications for profiling is being conducted by a number of Federal agencies, although they generally do not coordinate these research efforts. There is a need to coordinate research and experience in developing terrorist profiles among concerned agencies. Also, some work is going on to establish databases of past incidents and known terrori sts in order to help develop profiles. The FAA conducts a modest profiling research effort that produced the CPSP and is analyzing profiling field tests.However, this effort is housed in the in aviation security. It has worked with in-house experts, with other agencies, and with behavioral scientists under contract. There should be steps taken to guarantee that this institutional knowledge is not lost, due to needed secrecy or personnel turnover. There should also be an effort to bring together knowledge on profiling from the Intelligence Community, from the Federal Bureau of Investigation, from the Immigration and Naturalization Service, and from the FAA, so that all agencies may profitably pool their knowledge.One way of helping assure such interagency communication would be the institution of annual interagency conferences on the topic (see ch. 3). Profiling techniques and related technologies are being added to current security R plans at the FAA Technical Center. The operationa l aspects of using automated profiling systems, such as data entry and human/computer interaction, are similar to those of many other technologies, and could benefit from further research and development. intelligence section under the Assistant Administrator for Civil Aviation Security with no direct link to FAA’s R division.Historically, the FAA pioneered the use of profiles in aviation in the late 1960s and early 1970s during the upsurge of hijackings to Cuba. A team of experts under the leadership of the FAA Office of Aviation Medicine was involved in the development of the initial profiles. Limited use of profiles was made during the early 1970s and again in 1980, when immigrants from the Mariel Boatlift began hijacking aircraft to Cuba. [Profiles were employed on a limited basis to help stem the wave of hijackings to Cuba by some â€Å"Marielitos†. In the 1970s, the FAA also developed a profile for domestic use to identify persons who might be carrying explosives or incendiary devices in checked baggage. This â€Å"checked bag† profile included several objective elements and was intended for use by airline personnel at ticket counters. This profile was never applied rigorously, although some of its elements were automated by at least one U. S. air carrier. Thus, the FAA has had substantial experience with developing and implementing profiles for useA near-term research need is how best to combine profiling systems with the new security technologies now in the pipeline. In fact, arguments have been made that the TNA device can only function effectively when combined with profilebased selection of baggage to inspect, since false alarm rates are high. This is, in fact, being done at the Gatwick tests. Presently, the profiling process results in binary decisions—let the passenger pass into the normal security process (more than 95 percent of passengers) or conduct a manual search of the passenger and his baggage. One possibility w ould e to expand and refine the decision outcome from profiling to provide multiple screening paths for passengers depending on the level of threat and the availability of advanced detection equipment (see ch. 4). A longer term research option is to investigate new technologies to enhance profiling. Rapid access in the field to Federal, international, and, possibly, private databases (i. e. , hotel, credit card) could greatly enhance capabilities. Remote sensing of respiration and heart rates and other biological parameters, combined with large population databases, automated facial-recognition systems, andSsCustom offici& in the Northern ~ Islands, a U. S. -flag territory, incorporate cultural characteristics in looking for anomalies for profding. â€Å"a 88 q Technology Against Terrorism: Structuring Security biometric passports, all offer new possibilities for on-the-spot psychological and physiological assessments. From past experience, cultural factors particular to the countr y where the event is taking place frequently influence decisionmaking by local authorities. Some observers report that U. S. fficials who were involved would, on occasion, have benefited by a more detailed knowledge of the dynamics of local social systems. For example, in some cases, although crisis management officials were supposed to be in charge of handling an incident, local cultural or political factors have resulted in the crisis being directed instead by senior office holders, who are untrained for the purpose and unable to provide the rapid decisionmaking that is often required. Some research into systematizing knowledge of relevant aspects of different social systems would be useful.In this area, as in profiling, the construction of appropriate databases would be of use to U. S. officials who may be called on to participate in resolving a crisis. At present, there appears to be little coordination among agencies in understanding behavioral aspects of incident management. T his lack provides another argument for strengthening interagency coordination in counterterrorism (see ch. 3). Civil Liberties Security systems in general, and profiling methods in particular, trade certain freedoms (e. g. privacy) for safety. profiling methods, based on specific individual characteristics, may be derived from historical experience (e. g. , the large number of Cuban refugees who hijacked aircraft to Cuba in the early 1970s or the examples of hijacking engaged in by members of various Middle Eastern terrorist groups). These characteristics sometimes include physical and cultural features, since these traits are the easiest indicators to verify. Often such subjects belong to readily distinguishable minority groups.Therefore, people who possess the characteristics in question but who have no ill intentions (obviously, the great majority) could be subjected to scrutiny that could be considered to encroach on individual freedoms. This study describes measures to meet com pelling public safety interests. It is, however, beyond the scope of this study to discuss the many legal and societal civil liberties issues involved (e. g. , how much intrusiveness on privacy is countenanced by a compelling interest of the state? ).It is certain that the technical ability to investigate and record personal histories and characteristics and the demand for the use of such ability will greatly expand, thereby increasing the potential for crossing the fine line protecting constitutionally guaranteed individual liberties. Legislative attention will have to address the tradeoff between public safety and welfare and civil liberties. Policy Options The following policy options address human factors and aviation security. 1. Enhance FAA attention to human factors in security: 34 qExplicitly address aviation security in agencywide human-factors planning. The FAA has taken measures to move in this direction. Bolster human-factors expertise under the Assistant Administrator f or Civil Aviation Security and the Aviation Security Research and Development Service at the FAA Technical Center by adding professionals to their respective staffs, especially in light of plans to increase staff levels of both sections significantly during the next few years. One such professional has already been added. Incident Management Human factors also play a role in managing incidents abroad.When U. S. citizens are held hostage in a foreign country, the United States often plays a role in resolving the incident. Some foreign security officials are trained in the United States under assistance programs. But the United States also may participate actively, as it did in responding to a number of airline hijackings in the 1980s. q ~~e follo~ r=omenhtiom included in earlier drafts of this repofi has already been implemented by tie FAA q Add a designee of the Assistant Administrator for Civil Aviation Security to the FAA’s Human Factors Coordinating Committee.Chapter 5-Hum an Factors in Aviation Security q 89 2. Consider conducting R on combining passenger profiling techniques with other security technologies. 3. Give consideration to methods for â€Å"leveling the playing field† when imposing requirements on U. S. carriers but not on competing foreign ones. 4. Give consideration to civil liberties issues 5. stemming from Federal aviation security requirements. Coordinate behavioral research into profiling and incident management being conducted in the Federal Government. Arrange periodic interagency conferences on related topics.

Operation Design And Operational Essay

2b. Please see my Allied COG-CV analysis, which specifies the critical factors for the Allied forces for Operation Torch (i.e., at the operational level). 2c. Please see my Axis COG-CV analysis, which specifies the critical factors for the Axis forces during Operation Torch (i.e., at the operational level). 3. The Allied forces indirectly attack the enemy’s theater COG (i.e., the Panzer Armee N. Africa) by–at the operational-level of war—by specifying operational-level objectives that attack the operational-level COG’s critical vulnerabilities and –ultimately—contribute to the defeat of the strategic-level COG. Please see my operational-level objectives for the Allied forces. 3a. 3b. Please see my Allied COG-CV analysis for Operational Torch. It specifies the Allied, operational-level COG as _________________. Please see my Allied operational approach for Operation Torch, which specifies objectives that include the protection of the forces’ critical vulnerabilities. 4. 4a. Please see my operational approach for the Allied Forces’ Operation Torch, which specifies both the Allied main effort and decisive point(s). I specified the following decisive point(s):_______________. By prioritizing my objectives and considering them in light of the Allied Forces main effort and most important lines of operation/lines of effort, I’ve selected the most important objective(s) as my decisive point(s). 5. 5a. If the Axis forces achieve a sufficient number of its objectives (which attack the Allied critical vulnerabilities at the operational level) such that the Allied forces must change their form of maneuver (e.g., the Allied  forces can not longer continue the attack), the Allied forces will have culminated. 5b. If the Allied forces achieve a sufficient number of its objectives (which attack the Axis critical vulnerabilities at the operational level) such that the Axis forces must change their form maneuver (e.g., the Allied forces con no longer continue the attack), the Axis forces will have culminated. Reasons for Initiating Operation Torch – – The Allies planned to occupy Vichy France to prevent the land from being occupied by Axis; the invasion would eventually force Axis powers to fight a two-front war; also helped to diminish transportation of supplies to Axis forces; Key Personalities (Involvements) – – General Dwight D. Eisenhower – – Jean Francois Darlan – – Andrew Cunningham – Objective(s) of Operation Torch – – Allies planned to team up with Vichy France in North Africa in order to take Tunisia before Germans could occupy it from nearby Sicily. After invading North Africa and convincing the French to join the Allies, American and British forces planned to head directly to Sicily, invade, and move up to the core of Europe. Victory here would also allow the Allies to clear up the Mediterranean of Axis forces for their own personal use. Important Readings – from Earl Rice’s â€Å"Strategic Battles in Europe† . . . – page 24: The Americans joined their British allies. Roosevelt’s military advisers wanted to build up immediately for an invasion of the European mainland later in the year or early in 1943. Churchill and his counselors declared that an invasion of the continent so soon would be next to impossible because of insufficient time to assemble the necessary forces and  too few available landing craft in which to haul them across the English Channel. Churchill and his advisors did not want to risk a failed invasion. – page 25: Churchill instead favored extending operations in North Africa, where British forces were already fighting. he argued that seizing North Africa and beyond would introduce American troops to the action, boost American morale and appease Stalin’s demands for a second front. But Roosevelt’s advisors were unreceptive to Churchill’s plan and suggested redirecting U.S efforts to the Pacific Theater. In June 1942, Churchill told Roosevelt that Britain was both unable and unwilling to†¦

Argument on violence and american identity Essay

Argument on violence and american identity - Essay Example The attempts to remark women, natives, rural farmers, and slaves divided the American society. She argues that cohesion is not a celebration of sameness. In addition, she goes ahead to state that although national identities such as leaders appear to offer a sense of commonality, in real sense, it is grounded on a systematic pattern of exclusion. The â€Å"others† live in fear while â€Å"us† view them as immigrants (Eldredge and Riggenbach 21). Therefore, even as they pretend to uphold unity, in real sense they are plotting in the background on how to violently exclude them in order for them to leave the country and go back to their homes. Moreover, the need to unite people who share no culture, believes, race, and ideologies has even widened the divisions and exacerbated the tendency of violence, paranoia, and exclusion. Illegal immigration and violence towards â€Å"others† is no longer an unfamiliar topic among most Americans. Illegal immigration has both negative and positive impacts of the US economy. The current level of illegal immigration to America has enlarged the discussions about immigration leading to an undesired influence. Illegal immigrants are separated into disparate areas and hard to be distinguished. The government has tried various ways to prevent illegal immigration, including reinforcing border lines and administrating the existing illegal immigrants (Skerry 1). American government is expected to deal with the illegal immigration in America in aspects of economic, social and political issues. Employers enjoy higher income because the cost of labor reduces drastically (Haugen and Musser 31). A growing number of Americans feel that national wealth is going into wrong hands. There is a need to ensure that public goods are used by those who pay for them (Shipler 41). This ca lls for an immigration policy that leads to fiscal sustainability and economic progress. Illegal immigration is likely to end up

History exam Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

History exam - Assignment Example The Soviets would dominate Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania; Britain would control Greece; Yugoslavia would be shared by both countries. The country which was NOT mentioned at all in the bargain was _____Poland__________, of vital importance to Stalin. (3pts) 6. By early November, 1944, the Red Army, after victories in Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, reached the gates of ___Budapest______________, Hungary. Hungarian and German troops mounted a savage defense of the city; capitulation came in February 1945. (3pts). 7. __d______ Select the letter which represents the accurate chronology? (3pts) a. Failed coup against Hitler, Soviet recognition of the Polish â€Å"Lublin† or communist government, Allied capture of Cherbourg, Allied capture of Rome, Operation Overlord b. Allied Capture of Cherbourg, Allied Capture of Rome, Operation Overlord, Failed coup against Hitler, Soviet recognition of the Polish â€Å"Lublin† or communist government c. Operation Overlord, Allied Capture of Cherbourg, Failed coup against Hitler, Soviet recognition of Polish â€Å"Lublin† or communist government d. Allied capture of Rome, Operation Overlord, Allied Capture of Cherbourg, Failed coup against Hitler, Soviet recognition of the Polish â€Å"Lublin† or communist government’ 7. Reagan was re-elected in 1984 by an overwhelming majority; he lost only his opponent’s home state. Who was the Democratic opponent ______Walter Mondale____________________ and from which state did he come _Minnesota____________________________? 8. __d____During Reagan’s second term, the following was true except a. declining wealth for the middle class b. increasing poverty c. increasing racial and economic polarization d. vigorous efforts by the Reagan administration to deal with AIDS and â€Å"crack† epidemics 14. False_____ During Reagan’s presidency, the standard of living of divorced women declined while that of divorced men increased; in

Contemporary issues in travel and tourism Assignment

Contemporary issues in travel and tourism - Assignment Example Tourism has emerged to be one the fastest growing economic sectors in many countries. For instance, in Costa Rica, tourism has been serving as the largest foreign exchange earner since 1995. The natural attractions such as Poas Volcano Crater and Cocos Island have enhanced the growth of the sector in Costa Rica. Since the year 1999, tourism in Costa Rica has earned more foreign exchange than agricultural product exportation in the country (Jawahar 2009, p. 268). Despite the tourism sector being the leading foreign exchange source, it also brings consequences such as terrorism and security, health and safety impacts, and negative social and cultural impacts in the country. Current issues affecting tourism in Costa Rica Insecurity issue There are many current issues affecting travel and tourism in Costa Rica, which include insecurity and natural hazards such as earthquakes. The problem of insecurity in Costa Rica towards tourists may pose a greater negative impact to tourism in the country. Costa Rica hopes to make billions of revenue from the travel and tourism sector this year, so travelling to Costa Rica is very imperative to sustain the country’s economy (Costa Rica News 2011). Tourists should be aware of the current possible insecurity matters in the country. Terrorist attacks in the country occur randomly anytime and anywhere. Examples of these attacks include suicide bombs, car bombs, kidnappings, and shootings. Therefore, tourists should be aware that there is an increment in the number of crimes around the entire country including pick pocketing and stealing of passports (Costa Rica News 2011).... Ecotourism in the country helps in provision of political, social, and economical funds, educate travelers, directly benefits local communities’ political empowerment and economic development, and ensure protection of different cultural practices and human rights. â€Å"Take the only memories and leave only footprints† is a common slogan used in Costa Rica in protected places (Costa Rica 2013). However, tourist destinations in Costa Rica are shifting carbon free area following the trend of tourists being more focused in environmentally responsible hence adopting a sustainable tourism (Donald 2005). Task 2 Key statistics of tourist for the last five years in Costa Rica Costa Rica remains to be the most visited country in Central American States, with 2.2 million tourists in the year 2011. The total of tourists touring the destination surpassed the two million landmarks in the year 2008 representing 54% U.S. tourist visiting Costa Rica. Due to the combined global economic crisis and the flu epidemic, this occurred in the year 2009, lead to a reduction of the number of tourists in 2009 to 1.9 million visitors. This was a reduction of 8% percent compared to the turn up in 2008. In the year 2010, the number of tourists rose to 2.1 million, barely breaking the record of 2008. An historical record was set in the year 2012 with 2.34 million tourists visiting Costa Rica, a 6.9% increase over the year 2011. The global tourist receipts increased to 2.4 billion dollars in the year 2012, and the leading country of origin was United States with a total of 864,340 visitors, Nicaragua in 474,011tourists being the second, and Canada with 136,261 visitors. Emerging trends in terms of product services offered The Costa Rica tourism composes of visible actors-like airlines and hotels,

Exploring the factors influencing Consumer on choosing iphone in the Essay

Exploring the factors influencing Consumer on choosing iphone in the mobile phone market(Marketing ) - Essay Example Smartphone are in fashion and the iPhone is the most dominating handset throughout. In fourth quarter of 2008, a sale of 305 million was recorded in global mobile market while Compound Annual Growth Rate from 2009 to 2012 is expected to be 12.3%. At present, Apple holds 32 percent of the aggregate mobile phone industry profit globally. Windows mobile are very popular these days. Kirk illustrated a research that by 2012, almost 37.4 % of the Smartphone market will be captured by Operating System of Nokia Symbian, while Android will hold around 18% of the Smartphone market. Operating System of Blackberry will own around 13.9% and the Operating System of the iPhone will own 13.6% of the Smartphone market (2009). Popularity of the iPhone has been increasing day by day. Another research from the Wall Street Journal reveals that the market share of Apple’s Smartphone significantly fell down to 16.6% in the fourth quarter of 2009 from 18.1% in the third quarter of 2009, though sales grew with almost 18% from third quarter to the fourth quarter of the year 2009 while in the fourth quarter of 2008, Apple experienced a growth from 10.8% to around 16.4% in 2009 in market share (Marsal, 2010).   There is a great influence over the Smartphone industry of the iPhone (Sheth, N. 2010).  However, Apple holds a significant role in Smartphone industry (Evans, J. 2010). Apple has been coming up with numerous competitive products like multitouch ipads etc. Marketing side of Apple is very strong and still, it is expected that Apple will be selling around two million ipads in the current year and is expected to sell almost six million ipads in the coming year 2011. This could be the reason behind Investors’ trust in Apple (Hughes, 2010).   A latest mobile model experiences good time till the new model is released by the company. People crazily start buying latest versions of their

Group of Eight and Poverty in Africa Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Group of Eight and Poverty in Africa - Essay Example Questions of East-West economic relations, energy, and terrorism have also been of recurrent concern. From this initial foundation the summit agenda has broadened considerably to include microeconomic issues such as employment and the information highway, transnational issues such as the environment, crime and drugs, and a host of political-security issues ranging from human rights through regional security to arms control. According to UN estimates, poor countries need $45 per person per year in aid in order to have any chance of winning the fight against poverty and reaching the Millennium Development Goals. All four countries currently affected by the West Africa food crisis receive less than this. Mali receives $19 per head, Mauritania $20 and Burkina Faso $13. Africa's 48 countries have people who want for their children education, good health, security and opportunity. They want a voice, a chance to make a better life for them and respect for their human rights. It is a continent where even though some progress has been made, the fact remains that few, if any, of the Sub-Saharan African countries are likely to achieve the goal of reducing the proportion of those living in absolute poverty by half by 2015. Instead the number of the poor in the region is estimated to grow by 45 million over the next 12 years. The richest countries of the world, as represented by the G8, have a responsibility to help the poorest. This is not just charity, but a moral obligation. The world's wealthiest countries have emitted more than their fair share of greenhouse gases. Resultant floods, droughts and other climate change impacts continue to fall disproportionately on the world's poorest people and countries, many of which are in Africa. Finance Ministers from the Group of Eight industrialized nations have agreed to cancel at least $40 billion in debt owed by the world's 18 poorest nations (Cowell, 2005). Under the agreement, 18 countries - Benin, Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guyana, Honduras, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Nicaragua, Niger, Rwanda, Senegal, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia, will receive immediate forgiveness for more than $40 billion they owe to the World Bank, African Development Bank and the International Monetary Fund (Blustein, 2005). The deal will save the initial 18 countries about $1.5 billion annually that they could use toward health care, education and poverty alleviation programs, according to British Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown. (New York Times, 2005). An additional nine African countries likely will qualify for debt forgiveness once they have satisfied IMF and World Bank requirements for good governance and sound economic policies. The agreement also requires G8 countries to compensate the World Bank and AFDB at a total cost of $16.7 billion, based on the payments the lenders would have received from the 18 countries between now and 2015. The debt-forgiveness cost to the IMF will be absorbed by the institution's already existing resources. The United States agreed to pay up to $1.75 billion to the lenders over the next decade, and the United Kingdom agreed to pay up to $960 million (New York Times, 2005). Germany will pay between $848 million and $1.2 billion to the World Bank an

Politics in organizations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Politics in organizations - Essay Example Within the leadership discussion, it would be apt to state that the leaders within the organizational domains have exerted their authority in a positive as well as a negative fashion. What this means is the fact that leaders have usually used all forms of tools that will manifest their control over the subordinates and employees who are working under their aegis. The negativity stems from the fact when politics come about as a major force to reckon with. This is a hugely significant undertaking on the part of any organization which has decided for its own self that politics will be kept away no matter how difficult the circumstances turn out to be for the organization (Storey 2004). The changing world of organizations have seen that leadership and management realms are now depending heavily on the use of power and politics for the sake of meeting their goals and objectives. It is a given that any organization would dearly cherish the idea of a politics-free environment so that the employees could breathe easily and also that no ill-will will come about whilst one is working within the domains of the organization. However this does not always come about as a reality so to speak. The reason for the same lies on the shoulders of the management gurus and top management cadres that literally rule the roost when it comes to gaining an understanding of the organizational realms. There should be sound values and principles within the organizational boundaries which ask of the employees to exert their authority in such a manner that no illegal undertakings are done on their part. This will solve quite a lot of problems for the sake of the organizations as well as the employees themselves. Moving on, the role of management within this discussion is an essential one. This is because any management entity would absolutely appreciate the idea of having a non-partis an, non-political ideology within its work manifestations. It has usually been seen that

Why are there many translations of the bible is an advantage and Essay

Why are there many translations of the bible is an advantage and disadvantage - Essay Example glish has been the dominant language for centuries and the translating group (publishers and Bible scholars among others) use different methods to produce various versions that enhance peoples’ comprehension of the teachings. Critics point on the faithfulness of the Bible translations arguing that it contains distorted meanings and words of God. There is the dynamic equivalence method which lays emphasis on the original meaning, formal equivalence on word by word (Wallace 23). However, rather than focusing on the grammatical content in translations, the problem arises in trying to ensure the symbolic language used in the original material of translation makes sense upon paraphrasing and conversions. The benchmark is to ensure that though languages may change, the word of God still remains unchanged. The Greek New Testament has been criticized for its textual underpinnings that demonstrated a departure from the received Greek text. When Westcott Foss and Fenton John Anthony published the Greek New Testament, they considered the available ancient manuscripts that have been discovered to have missed certain passages (â€Å"Why so,† Bible.org). Many Biblical translators have failed to credit the works of these men, despite the fact that they laid a pillar in Biblical translation works. Their work has been claimed to be glorious, but surrounded by controversy on their contradiction from the original sources. Westcott and Anthony used two sources of the manuscripts that came from codex sinaiticus and vaticanus, believed to be false copies of the New Testament. Critiques hold that they entail the fifty falsified manuscripts deliberately corrupted by Eusebius to fulfil the order of neo-pagan emperor Constantine; the two manuscripts not only contradict each other numerously, but 99 per cent disagree with other Koine Greek manuscripts (â€Å"A concordance,† archive.org). Studying the version, there is rising doubt from the contradictions and posing inaccuracies that exist,

Analyse the Motivational Problems in MagNet Corporation Research Paper

Analyse the Motivational Problems in MagNet Corporation - Research Paper Example   MagNet Corporation is a new start-up organization and has strength of 35 employees Existing in the market for two years, the company is heavily dependent on Information Technology (IT) tools MagNet mainly operates in the software market and provides educational software to colleges and universities based on Oracle database engine With excellent performance, early entry in the distance education market and two years of successful marketing, the company has been able to penetrate 5% of the market and increase their employee strength from 5 to 35 within such a short span However, with increasing demand in the clientele, the company is also facing problems to the main efficiency in its regular administrative processes where personnel are observed to lack motivation and are also observed as inefficient in change adaptation Business situation After evaluation and analysis of the company’s General Administration Department, i.e. Department C, it has been found that despite its wo rkforce constitutes potential employees, they lack on few motivational grounds and have to face a higher level of stress in order to accomplish the target to boost up the sales from 5% to 10%. Job role segregation has also been viewed as a major problem where the sales representatives rely heavily on the technical department, which makes them a slow learner and increases the burden on the technology department. Many of the sales force has also demanded training as mandatory for their development. In precise, the business situation observed in Department C of MagNet exhibits the need for better coordination amid the staff at the departmental level, motivation needs to boost their change adaptation behavior and understanding of the organizational success requirements. The stressors in this situation can be identified as the growing pressure from the clientele, absence of a specific HR policy framework and limited job commitment deciphered by the employees. Technical situations The ope rational processes in MagNet have been heavily dependent on modern technical instruments, which have in turn also affected the efficiency of the administrative department. Even the communication between the employees and managers happens via e-mail, with lack of interaction that further limits the scope of the supervisors to motivate their subordinates continually and efficiently. The personnel in Department C have also been heavily dependent on the technical support team to respond to the customer’s questions, especially those regarding new products as the employees in this department lack in efficiency to learn about new products and services within a short span of time. Solutions From a critical understanding of the situation, it can be observed that employees in Department C indeed require rigorous training focused on developing their learning, change adaptability and technical skills enhancement. Correspondingly, the company applied Maslow’s needs hierarchy theory and McClelland’s theory of motivation that has efficiently pointed-out the individual motivational needs of the staff members. Based on their performance appraisal as well, the company addressed three employees to be trained and has given formal written warnings to some of the employees so as to motivate them to perform better.  Ã‚  

Amusement Park - 1 Essay Example for Free

Amusement Park 1 Essay When one goes to an amusement park they usually set out to be thrilled by riding all of the newest attractions. At a park you’ll find many diverse people. But in reality, the people that go there can be grouped into three different categories. There is the individual that knows every minute fact about every roller coaster ever made. Then, there are small children that have to stay in kiddy land. Finally, there are the fanatic families that are there for just a day. These three categories are the roller coaster guru, the under sixty-two-inch club, and the non-stop ride until you drop family crew. The roller coaster guru knows every minute fact about every roller coaster ever built. He travels to theme parks all over the world just to be one of the first park goers that experiences a new roller coaster. It doesn’t matter how long the line to a coaster may be or how short the ride itself may be; the roller coaster guru will do anything for the rush of a coaster. Like some are addicted to drugs, he’s addicted to riding roller coasters. If you talk to him it will seem he only takes pleasure in roller coasters and nothing else. You might say he lives and breathes roller coasters. However, not all park goers can ride roller coasters, whether it is they get sick on them or just don’t care for them. The under sixty-two-inch club is unfortunately banned from all real rides, including roller coasters. This is due to their short stature. You will often find these little people in kiddy land watching longingly the â€Å"over sixty-two-inch club† being exhilarated by all of the actual rides. While most of the members are children, dwarfs and midgets also apply. The unfortunate parents of these children try to console and comfort them, but the children just don’t understand why they are stuck in a world of such un-thrilling rides, when they can hear the screams of excitement coming from just beyond the fence. One day their time will come and they too will be inducted into the non-stop ride until you drop family crew. The non-stop ride until you drop family crew goes to an amusement park for a one-day family getaway. The second they enter the park they put their pre-planned agenda into effect, running into all different directions. All day long they ride every ride they possibly can, no lunch or bathroom breaks allowed. They have one mission and it is to ride every ride in the entire park in just eight short hours. You should not try and befriend any of these ride-thirsty people for they will cut you in line and may become incredibly precarious. They must waste no time, because they want to be the first on and off every ride so they can complete their mission on time. Many different people can be found at amusement parks. Theme parks may seem like harmless places to the naked eye but with a magnifying glass everything is scarier than originally thought. These three categories of people are found at every park: the roller coaster guru, the under sixty-two-inch club, all the way to the non-stop ride until you drop family crews. Beware of the fanatic families that will stop at nothing to complete their task, the infuriated children being deprived of all the excitement, and the roller coaster experts who will stop at nothing to attest they are the best of their kind!

Organ Donation Ethical Issues

Organ Donation Ethical Issues The need for the organ transplant is increasing in our sector of health care as more and more end stage diseases are being diagnosed. Organ transplantation may be a life-saving option, but they are not without their challenges and risks. The concept of organ transplantation is both miraculous and challenging at the same time. Whether a patient needs a new kidney, liver, heart, or lung, there are multiple issues that the patient and the family need to deal with. They involve decisions before the transplantation and medical issues postoperatively. An organ transplant bill that had been under study with the senate since 1992 was finally approved on 5 September 2007 as A Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Ordinance 2007 by the Government of Pakistan, and many illegal organ donation and transplantation centers were closed down and many senior doctors involved in the act were charged against it. The issue over here is much diversified and complex when we go into the details of the consequences of the act. Firstly, the question arises of what is right and what is permissible? Secondly, the right of making the laws for the right and wrong act is disputed and challenged by mankind, on the basis of his reasoning and self judgment. Moral Issues The organ transplantation has been long debated and addressed by many scholars from both religious and secular perspective. The major issues concerning the wide permissibility of the act are of bypassing the virtue ethics cardinal features: respect for autonomy, nonmaleficence, beneficence and justice. If we further categorize the ethical dilemmas we can address he organ transplant act under these broad types, which encompass their own challenges when it comes to making a sound and safe decision. These categories are: Transplant organ from a living person. Transplant of organ from a dead person Transplant from a fetus. If we were not being guided by the supreme law, which has been transedented on us, and let us believe, that man has the power of brains over all other logics and laws of nature. Then trying to find any solution for a given problem, or setting any rules to follow for any system to work would have been very difficult. In other words trying to find analogies for God grounded systems is beyond human competence and reasoning. Considering moral principles Considering the issue of organ donation and transplantation, the respect for autonomy is the right to choose for the decision making of certain biomedical ethical dilemma. It not just involves giving respect for the attitude, but also for the action to be performed. From pure secular ethics point, we can relate what Immanuel Kant had recognized from the concept of unconditional worth, stating that each individual has the capacity to determine his or her own moral destiny. To violate a persons autonomy is like treating that person merely as means, without regard to that persons own goals. Example if a person s dead and his organs are taken from his body without his previous advance directives of any such act, then, its again considered to be using that body as a means. But what if that organ was so precious in saving the life of a living person, who could have benefitted humanity if given a chance to live, e.g. a doctor or a well trained militant, etc. this shows the beneficence over the autonomy and serving the utilitarian ethical principle. If we consider the case of organ taken from a fetus, then again who is the ultimate supreme authority to give consent on behalf of that minor? What makes one decides the ruling of a certain act to be just for an individual? Then here comes the question of, who plays the role of the unquestionable evaluator and who among us is eligible to be devoid of all flaws in reasoning and decision making? Does the living donor has the ultimate right over his body or his relatives who have the right to decide the answer to this if another influential family member is the supposed recipient of the organ? A wife cannot take decision over her own medical issues without her husbands will and consent? A poor clan member of a certain tribe falls victim to the Jirga rulings. Similarly what happens to the war prisoners? The freedom fighters in occupied areas, who have been mutilated for organ trafficking? Who plays the role of just decision mak ing and for what principle? Is it justified that Greatest happiness Principle is fulfilled by the Utilitarian approach? Kantian approach, a duty to save human life? Egalitarian approach, to get equal benefit? Communitarian to serve the community benefits at the cost of ones own necessities and health. The questions remains open ended, if we try to rebut the argument with one ethical principle, then the other might get offended. Does virtue ethics answers every thing? Promoting Organ transplantation has three basic issues namely social, religious and political. The controversy still goes on whether to openly accept the permissibility of the act or to completely Bann it. Another important debate is on the issue of burial in case of cadaveric transplants. The question is of the sanctity of the deceased maintained at the time of burial if he is stripped off all his organs and a hollow coffin is buried instead; would any of us want such an end of life. Moreover some people are of the view that every individual holds the right to be buried as a whole and taking out his body organs (in cases when he hasnt left a clear will regarding the issue) despite in all good faith sounds unethical. These delicate and intricate details further complicate the allowance of this transplantation and organ donation act in full context in all diversities of cases. But the arguments strength depends upon careful analysis of each of the cases keeping in mind all kinds of ha rms and benefits ; be it physical, emotional or financial pertaining to the donor, recipient, and / or their families. Argumentative views regarding the retrieval of an organ from a cadaver as being a part of the corpse or not is also an aspect that cannot be overlooked. The controversial role of Advanced Directives has led to two main questions: 1. Does one have legal rights over ones body? 2. If that is the case, then what exactly is wrong with even selling something that belongs to me? Another view held by many individuals is that, so what it is just an organ? People can sell their organs, which is supposedly their ownership, to gain financial benefits for their families. This again holds the view of providing benefit to many, without doing harm(as the removal of organ is done under anesthesia). But doesnt this promotes the evil of organ trafficking which would harm many poor population and weaker ones in the society. This consequentionalist approach is again challenged here. The chain of this reaction would eventually affect many people, be it a good end or a bad. The principles of beneficence and nonmaleficence can be advanced in the context of different issues: like the expertise available, the disclosure of all the possible outcomes and complications of the procedure, for the donor and the recipient, both medical and financial. The support that would be needed by the family and the prognosis of such advanced procedures should be looked into detail to benefit the patient and do no harm to the donor and the family members. The professional may have an influential role on the decision making. The autonomy of the patient is usually surrogated by the financial and moral obligation of the social setup. There is a strong need for a system to keep a check on the medical problems of certain disease transmission through non screened donor organs, the use of unskilled surgeons in removing the organ, organ trafficking and selling, the actual financial damages of the post operative chemotherapy and potential need for the failure of the graft or re-transplantation, the actual life expectancy even after the transplant of individual case etc. Every states constitution differs in some aspect to their religious and cultural norms, example, what ever is permissible in Germany is not accepted in many Muslim states, so the need for a definite, supreme, sovereign law cannot be denied. Conclusion Finding the ultimate law which would be unchallengeable and flawless is yet to be defined by the human nature. The unlimited limits of transedental laws and reasoning begins, where my horizons of imagination and limited reasoning ends. The noble act of organ donation should be encouraged only in the limits drawn by the Shariah rulings of the contemporary times in view of its divines as an act of saving the humankind and helping those who are suffering. It should be given prime importance that these rulings certainly apply to variations of case selection as well.

The Gender Division Of Labour Sociology Essay

The Gender Division Of Labour Sociology Essay Functionalists put forward a structuralist view of the family and within that context, how they understand conjugal roles. Parson believed the gender division of labour was natural and desirable. He also suggested that men and women had biologically determined personality types. Parson suggested that the roles carried out by women were not inferior, just different. They complimented the role carried out by men. He believed that women were more expressive then men and children were best socialised when they live in a warm, caring environment. The expressive female was also essential to stabilise the adult male personality by meeting his emotional and sexual needs. As a result, the family benefits when women stay at home. Also, men are better at providing for their family because they have instrumental personalities. He also stated that in the industrial society, isolated nuclear families have become more dominant. These families have become isolated from their extended families becaus e of commitments such as work demands. The conjugal pair therefore looked to each other to provide for their needs. In recent years, Parsons view has been supported by a number of groups, including New Right Conservation. They believed traditional, segregated conjugal roles were best for the family and wider society. However, to their concern, they believe they have been threatened by family diversity and the changing roles and expectations of women, resulting in a number of social problems such as underachievement and delinquency. Therefore, suggesting that they see the family as a structure that influences the development and attitudes of its members. Looking at Young and Willmotts analysis of the symmetrical family, they suggest that families today are more equal than before and have moved from segregated conjugal roles. This movement was through the result of a march of progress. There are several reasons for this. The first is that women are in paid employment, giving them financial independence and leading to greater sharing of power and status within the family. Unlike before, there are also changing expectations of husbands and family life. Also, there is a change in the size of families today, which are smaller. This may be due to changes in lifestyle, contraception and abortion. With the loss of the extended family this meant that the conjugal couple depended on each other practically and emotionally, both contributing to the duties within the home and sharing decisions. As a result, marriage today is becoming an equal partnership. Gershuny supports the view of Young and Willmott, that there is a greater equality. The foundation of his work over the past three decades is through the use of time use diaries. Gershuny sustains that the division of labour remains unfair, not because of the work itself, but because of its relationship to longer-term power structures within a society. (The Guardian, 2008). Although there is some progress towards greater sharing, it is very slow. He suggested that it may take a generation for men to make an equal contribution, describing this as lagged adaptation. Post Modernists argue that the world is no longer predictable. Society has entered a postmodern phase where there is no dominant family type and where individuals have the opportunity to create family relationships that are more suitable for them. Families are much more diverse today. In todays society, home life is much better than it used to be. There are also an increased number of appliances in the home, making home life more desirable and more men are willing to stay at home and help with household duties and childcare. This is similar to Young and Willmotts view on changing gender identities, describing men as New Men, helping to emphasis a change in attitudes. Also, some women are content with staying at home, taking on parenting and housework duties. In short, Young and Willmotts and others have argued that while conjugal roles are not completely equal they have become more equal. However, Feminists have criticised Parsons image of society that too much emphasis is laid upon how social control within families can reduce the potential for underachievement and delinquency. Also, there is no evidence of the biologically expressive female. Critics of Young and Willmott suggest there is insufficient sociological evidence to clearly support their argument. Most evidence suggests considerable inequality, especially where women are in paid employment. Feminists argue that the gender division of labour is culturally created and that there is insufficient evidence that conjugal roles have become more shared. They portray that the division of labour works to the advantage of men, leaving women in a position of inferiority in both power and work. Feminists believe the family is patriarchal because women must do housework without pay, which exploits and oppresses women because they are socialised to be dependent on men. According to Ann Oakleys (1974) research, women still felt that housework and childcare was their responsibility, even when they are in paid employment they still take on the responsibility of childcare and housework, this is known as the triple shift. This also contradicts the argument of Young and Willmott that as more women take paid employment outside of the home men increasingly share the housework and childcare. They also disagree with the new rights view of separate roles and they disagree with the march of progr ess view, stating that society has not changed and it is still unequal. Feminists also reject the theory that there is one best family type, they embrace freedom and diversity. They also see the traditional nuclear family as the main reason for womens oppression, suggesting that family ideology makes problems such as domestic violence worse, as women believe they should stand by their man no matter what the outcome is. These women may blame themselves for being bad wives and see themselves as deserving to be punished. Feminists reject Parsons view that women were biologically determined and believe they are socially constructed. They blame the media for this construction of women, often portraying them as housewives, cleaners, domestic servants offering comfort and support for men and presenting them as a mans sex object to tend to his sexual needs, suggesting that these roles are natural and normal. This is therefore seen as an example of patriarchal ideology. Marxist feminists believe that female workers are taken advantage of at a higher level than males as they are seen as a source of unpaid domestic labour, benefiting capitalism. Interactionism criticise both functionalists and feminists because both assume that social structure determines gender roles. Functionalists believe that family meets the needs of the individual and the family and Feminists believe that family maintains patriarchy. Interactionism has a more micro theory focusing on relationships between individuals and outcomes rather than roles, including things like social class, ethnic, lesbian and gay differences. In short, there is little evidence of sharing of power and the cultural dominance of men over women persists. Critics say that women have hidden powers controlling the home and have sexual power. They also say that feminism has led to greater opportunities for women in education and the workplace and cultural change in female ambitions. Based on the above arguments and evidence, there remains considerable disagreement within Sociology over the dispute of conjugal roles. While Functionalists believe that roles are progressively equal in modern society, Feminists maintain that there is very little empirical evidence to support this. For them, there remains considerable inequality. However, Interactionists and Post Modernists are critical of both approaches for a presumptuous view of conjugal roles and for ignoring the diversity of family and household structures and outcomes.

Race and Racism - Racial Implications of an Advertisment Essay

Race and Racism - Racial Implications of an Advertisment The other day, as I was trying to find a picture for this assignment, I stumbled across the picture at the top of the "personals" section of a local paper. On the surface, it seemed racially balanced. It certainly wasn't structured to make an outward statement about race. However, just the way it's laid out reflects subtle and probably unconscious judgements of the nature of race, and how it affects us. It has small, individual photos of six people, of varying race and age. The two people farthest to the left are a bit older, perhaps in their forties. I was not sure about one of the pictures: my first opinion was that it was a young Hispanic man, but she is really a partially African female. In short, there was variety here. However, the ad uses race to sell by avoiding the implication of interracial relationships, showing predominantly "white" people, and showing a mix of people from different races. The ad does not explicitly show an interracial couple, even though people of many races advertise in the personals. The ad seems to avoid pairing people together as couples too much. There aren't any words like "Look what perfect couple found each other!" The people probably are not professional models, either. The implication is that the people shown represent either the people who are advertising or all potential readers of an ad that one might place. Perhaps it is significant that there is a bit of a bias toward men in the ad; they are placed more to the left. A reader will generally see the men first as he scans the ad. This could mean that the service is trying to sell more to women. If so, it is also avoiding the implication that a customer might be placed in a ra... ... even though it is not likely. How many people look at the personal ads and decide not to date because they don't see their race there? Not many. That is what the creators of the ad intended. In a liberal society, people should not be overly concerned about racial differences when they are dating. They should not worry about class differences either. I have heard advice that it is harder for interracial couples to have a successful marriage, because of cultural differences, but the person who issued this hastily remarked that this was the only problem, and that one says a false doctrine by saying that one race or another is inferior. In the end, one could use this ad in racist or race-unifying arguments, in spite of the intentions of the authors. I am simply glad that I don't have to use it to find potential dating contacts. (At any rate, I haven't done so yet.)

Silas Marner Essay -- essays research papers

In George Eliot’s Silas Marner, the reader is introduced to a number of characters that possess the elements of selfishness. Silas Marner, Godfrey Cass, and Dunstan Cass exhibit this trait numerous times during novel. Even though these characters all exhibit selfishness during this story, by the end their characteristics are not similar at all. This schism of development is one of the themes of the story that will be analyzed. Regardless of the similar characteristics characters may possess in the beginning of the story, they can become very different people by the end. These characteristics are not limiting and do not hinder the development of a character.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dunstan Cass is a character that the reader finds extraordinarily selfish. The degree to which he manipulates people to gain more money and have a good time is ridiculous. In one instance, the speaker takes the reader into the mind of â€Å"Dunsey† as he is contemplating his plan to further scam his brother, Godfrey. In more than one instance, Dunstan reassures himself that he is more cunning than his brother and that manipulating him has become more like a game than anything else. Dunstan gathers loans from his brother and other townspeople and never pays them off. The precious gold of Silas Marner also falls prey to the tireless machine of greed that lies within   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Callahan, Thomsen 2 Dunstan’s desensitized mind. The fact that he is taking something of much value away from a simple man like Silas Marner never crosses his mind as he makes his way into Marner’s house and steals the gold pieces. The purpose of the theft is not for the sake of being mean, but rather it is an opportunity to bail himself out of another hole he has dug by manipulating Godfrey. Of the three characters that are first introduced to the reader as being selfish, Dunstan remains cold and selfish even at the end of the novel. He does not learn anything and he does not go through a dramatic change in his life that will force him to re-evaluate his actions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Godfrey Cass, brother to Dunstan Cass, is perhaps a litt... ... Thomsen 4 lives in. Furthermore, this action makes Silas look more human and compassionate to his fellow villagers. This opens Silas to inclusion by the group, and the townspeople, especially Dolly Winthrop, help Silas to raise Eppie. By the end of the novel Silas is very highly regarded by the members of his community and he appears to be very content with himself. This shows how Silas is transformed from a recluse miserly weaver to a kindhearted pillar of the community.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This transformation that Silas and Godfrey both undergo is a testament to the careful characterization employed by Ms. Eliot. This transformation, among other details, defines these characters making them appear vividly to the reader. Dunstan Cass’ actions are predictable making him take the form of a simple stock character. In literature, a character’s importance can often be measured by how vividly they are portrayed. This is also true in Silas Marner, where Silas and Godfrey are totally round characters, who are intricately involved in almost all important parts of the story; while Dunstan is extremely static, falling outside of the inner circle of highly important characters.

Mythical Pasts: Ethiopianism as a Revitalization Movement :: essays papers

Mythical Pasts: Ethiopianism as a Revitalization Movement Throughout history, identification with Ethiopian heritage has been a familiar concept to the Jamaicans who have suffered under slavery, colonialism and social oppression. This concept of "Ethiopianism" includes the appreciation of Ethiopia’s ancient civilization as well as its profound role in the Bible and world history. It has long been manifested in Jamaican culture as a means to identify with a glorious, righteous, and perhaps the earliest of all human civilization. Anthropologist Anthony F.C. Wallace has focused much of his research on the phenomena of Revitalization Movements throughout social history. He has recognized that such movements are characterized by a uniform process and can be defined as "a deliberate, organized, conscious effort by members of a society to construct a more satisfying culture" (Wallace 265). Considering the centuries of severe struggle amongst Jamaican society, from the inhumane conditions of slavery to modern neocolonialism on the island, it seems evident as to why the revitalization of the Ethiopian homeland would be present in the culture and even accelerated within the Rastafarian Movement. Prominent leaders and the circumstances of the times have allowed Ethiopianism to flourish amongst the oppressed masses of Jamaica and gain popular recognition through the lyrics of reggae music. There is no doubt that this identification with historical Ethiopia has served as a Revitalization Movement for Rastafarians within Jamaican culture and society. It would be impossible to understand the Rastafarian connection to Ethiopianism without first exploring at least a brief history of this ancient civilization. This historical root in a thriving civilization is especially important to discover as Blacks have unjustifiably been regarded as "uncivilized" throughout the centuries. I hope that the following will prove that today, Africans all over the world are descendents of what was once a very highly developed civilization in what is now Ethiopia. However, white populations have attempted throughout history to deny this fact. European scholars of the nineteenth century claimed that those who occupied the area in ancient times were not Negroes but Hamites; this attempt was made in hope of scientifically proving that whites are the origin and basis of all civilization (Barrett 70). African descendents have suffered for centuries due to this "de-negrification" of Blacks and those confusing racial classifications assigned by Whites. The fa ct that the Ethiopian civilization was indeed a Black one is strongly supported with a quick insight into ancient Hebrew language.