Strategy and Strategic Management

Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Strategy and Strategic Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The Twelve Olympians by Monsiau, circa late 18th century Introduction There is no unanimity among scholars and practitioners on the meaning of strategy. Texts on the subject discuss strategy from different and sometimes contradictory perspectives. The only issue, over which there is little debate, is the origin of the term strategy. â€Å"In its original sense, strategy (from the Greek word, Strategos) is a military term used to describe the art of the general (Harvard Business School, 2005, p. xi). This art is about plans for troop deployment in battles to win wars. Many writers acknowledge that the concept of strategy has military origins, with Sun Tzu’s â€Å"Art of War† being one the oldest treatise on strategy. Businesspersons seem to enjoy using military analogies to conceptualize the running o f businesses in the modern world. Indeed, the pressure of keeping a business afloat amidst a very volatile operating environment that the world has become can feel like war. It is the goal of this paper to seek to uncover the essential components of strategy and the process of formulating a coherent organizational strategy in the context of the built environment. Amid the differences that exist as to what strategy is, it seems more beneficial to embrace a wide-angled view of since each of the viewpoints has merit and contributes to the overall understanding of the concept. It is the approach that Mark, (2004, p. 11) advocates for in the context of business when he states, â€Å"One of the greatest benefits of a comprehensive approach to strategy is the surfacing and exploitation of multiple sources of attractive growth†. However, this growth should give due considerations the internal resources availability for now and for the future.Advertising Looking for essay on busi ness economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Essential Components of Strategy The first essential component of strategy is action. The Harvard Business School (2005) states, â€Å"Strategy is about doing the right things† (p. xi). Actions reveal an organizations strategy. A deliberate strategy informs its actions. However, actions not based on a defined strategy still qualify for consideration as part of organizational strategy. Secondly, strategy refers to a plan. Henderson (1991) states, â€Å"Strategy is a deliberate search for a plan of action that will develop a business’s competitive advantage and compound it† (p. 5). This plan informs the actions undertaken when the strategy is deliberate. Henderson (1991) assumes that all strategy must be formally planned. In the context of strategy, it is not the formalization of a plan but the deliberate choices a business puts in place that counts. Another view f orwarded by the Harvard Business School (2005) about strategy is that it is a resource control and utilization plan meant to protect the central interests of an organization. These resources include finances, physical infrastructure, and human resource. This view accomodates the lack of a deliberate centralized conventional business strategy made through a formal process. It simply refers to the arrangement of those resources in a sensible manner towards certain ends. Competitive advantage is the motive behind strategy. Robert (2005) succinctly states, â€Å"Strategy is about winning† (p. 4). This view is supported by Porter (1991) who states, â€Å"the essense of strategy formulation is coping with competition† (p. 11). The idea expressed reveals the intentional use of a plan to out-perform business rivals using unique traits of the organization in order to survive, and hopefully thrive. In this case, strategy answers the need to be the best among competitors. The fif th essential component of strategy revealed by Robert (2005) is organizational identity. He states, â€Å"At the most basic level, strategy making extends beyond questions of resource deployment and market positioning to address fundamental questions such as: what is our business? What are we trying to achieve? What is our identity as an organization?† (Robert, 2005, p. xi). This approach requires the organization to understand itself first before venturing out into the market with a clear direction. Wall (2004) agrees with this approach showing that strategy provides an organization with a â€Å"coherent sense of direction†, which is yet another essential component of strategy (p. 4).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Strategy and Strategic Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This coherence makes it possible for all members of the organization to act in a coordinated fashion, which is essent ial for the success of a business. This holds true for small firms as well as large corporations. The final essential component of strategy is context. Successful strategy is very contextual. â€Å"As soon as we move beyond general notions to more precise definition, then these depend upon the type of arena within which strategy is being deployed† (Robert, 2005, p. 7). This element accounts for the disparities in the views on strategy since some of the viewpoints are highly contextalized. Increasingly, in this era of multinationals and globalization, context is more difficult to delineate especially geographically, yet to ignore context when developing strategy is to court disaster. Towards a Unified View of Strategy Based on the viewpoints above, Mark (2004) seems to have developed the most comprehensive definition of strategy. He states, â€Å"Strategy is about raising and allocating resources, setting priorities, directing organizations, and demonstrating through decisive behaviour what will be done – and what will not – in the pursuit of a larger vision, goal, mission, or high level set of objectives† (Mark, 2004. p. xv). His definition is broad enough to capture most of the essential elements of strategy thereby avoiding the problem of high contextualization. It is also wide enough to cover the specifics of strategy that are valid in the strategic management of all organizations. This makes it useful in understanding the concept of strategy. Its other strength is that it leaves room for looking at strategy as either deliberate or consequential. The elements defined here do not require a centralized approach to strategy development but even if it is there, it does not disqualify it. Its major weakness is its lack of enviromental cognisance. It does not account for environmental factors that greatly influence the preparation and execution of strategy. This goes to demonstrate that the process of developing a unfied view of strate gy is a work in progress, and still requires effort to sysnthesize the essential elements into a comprehensive definition of strategy. This preferred view must include the nine essential componenents identified above and in addition it must allow for both the deliberate and consequential nature of strategy.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More A definition that meets the above criteria will still be somewhat incomplete since there is still the problem of universality versus contextualization. The following is an attempt to redefine strategy to meet this criteria presenting a wider understanding of the concept. Strategy is a set of actions, planned or otherwise that influence resource acquisition and allocation, deployed for the express purpose of attaining competitive advantage based on a clear organizational identity expressed in terms of its place, power, problems and potential, which informs its direction and actions within its environmental context. This definition captures all the essential elements identified but its rather cumbersome. It is long and may not appeal to the wider audience who actually need a concise definition to capture the essence of strategy. Probably, the sensible thing to do is to settle for a simplified global definition, while providing working definitions for each field, as writers have alread y done. The Strategy Process As expected, there is no universality in the recommendation of an ideal process for strategy development. There are different views on it. â€Å"Henry Mintzberg and his colleagues at McGill Unversity distinguish intended, realized and emergent strategies†. (Robert, 2005, p. 14). Intended strategy is the one the organization deliberately plans and positions itself to implement. Emergent strategy is the one which developes unwittingly as an organization responds to evolving issues. When these two strategies interact, the result is the realized strategy which is the strategy the organization finds itself implementing. These three strategies are the result of three concurrent processes and they demonstrate the organic nature of strategy. Strategy therefore is not a static process but a dynamic one that evolves and requires regular refitting. There is much concurrence though when looking at strategy as a process. In fact, there is a deliberate encourag ement that organizations should take an active role in the developement of their strategy, other than waiting for one to emerge as they undertake their daily business. The Harvard Business School (2005) states, â€Å"strategy creation and its implementation should be approached as a process† (p. xvi). The school proposes a five level process for strategy development that is useful in understanding the strategy process. The steps in the process are developement of a mission, followed by identification of organizational goals. Thirdly, there is the actual strategy development succeeded by the strategy implementation process. The final level is performance measurement. The first level of strategy development is mission. â€Å"Strategy creation follows from the mission of the company, which defines its purpose and what it aims to do for customers and other stakeholders† (Harvard Business School, 2005, p. xvi). Mark (2004) underscores the importance of mission when he says that the identification and action upon a particular set of issues determines the success of a business. When the organization is clear about its priorities, then it can sucessfully engage in determining what is essential to its operations for success. The mission sets the rules governing its key relationships and functions. The next level is the identification of goals. â€Å"Strategy creation typically begins with extensive research and analysis and a process through which senior management zeros in on the top priority issues that the company needs to tackle to be sucessful inn the long term† (Harvard Business School, 2005, p. xvii). There is a difference in opinion as to the direction of flow of the process, and whether it is the top management that is best placed to set organizational goals. They have the tools and the authority but they lack in understanding of frontline issues that are key in implementation. Frontline staff on the other hand have clear views on what is not working for them but they lack the organizational overview. Probably, a middle line where the management gets input from the frontline is the best way around this challenge. Once the goals are set, strategy creation takes place. It involves determining the internal and external forces followed by the identification of the choices that the organization has to achieve its objectives. Many tools are used to examine the organization’s capacity to settle on a particular organizational strategy after an environmantal scan. While The Havard Busienss School advocates for SWOT as a method of conducting an enviromental scan, Robert (2005) feels that this approach is difficult to implement in practice and he advocates for a two way analysis of the environment, looking at internal and external factors. He contends that its not the four way classification but the â€Å"rigor and depth† in the analysis of these factors that counts (Robert, 2005). Another popular tool worth menti oning used to conduct an evironmental scan is the Porter’s Five Forces Analysis. This tool is useful when the organization’s bottom line is the impetus driving the organization’s effort in undertaking a stategic planning process. There is lesser contention on who developes organizational strategy. Many writers agree that â€Å"the job of creating an organization’s strategy over time falls to senior managers† (Walker, 2004. p4). The forth step in the strategy process is implementation. â€Å"A strategy that is formulated without regard to its implemetation is likely to be fatally flawed.† (Robert, 2005, 14). In pushing the case for more frontline involvement, Daughtry and Casselman (2009) state, â€Å"Vision and strategy, critical though they are, are virtually useless without consistent execution right down to the frontlines† (p. 1 ). This requires good communication along the ranks of the organization. They add that â€Å"Strategy h as to be translated into the language and actions appropriate to each level in the organization† (Daughtry Casselman, 2009, P.5). The final level in the strategy process is performance measurement. This lacks in organizations that do not have deliberate strategy. They do not know what to measure since they have not categorically stated what their goals are. This five-step process is more useful as a conceptual model than as an actual implementation process. Wall (2004) warns that things do not work out this neatly in the real world where forces shift suddenly and without warning. Perhaps it is best to look at strategy development as â€Å"an iterative process that begins with a recognition of where you are and what you have now† (Henderson, 1991, p. 6). New information and circumstances feed into the old circumstances forcing us to change and adapt our methods. The role of strategic management is to ensure that the changes in the environment do not adversely affect the organization’s long term view, but that the organization prepares in advance to take advantage of these changes. Application of Strategy-Strategic Fit and Strategic Foresight Just like other organizations, construction companies exists within a certain environment defined broadly by the natural environment, demographic structures, social structures, legislative processes, technology, and economy. This environment has an immediate impact on their interest’s interests and influences everyday decisions. In addition, they have their own unique internal environments defined by organizational culture, resources outlay such as level capitalisation and expertise, and business processes defining how they find and execute construction contracts. The internal environment influences the realization of their aspirations and the momentum they sustain towards their realization. Certain other forces much larger in dimension constitute the business climate of companies in the built en vironment. These include the macroeconomic trends, political issues, and global trends. Montgomery and Porter (1991) observe, â€Å"Increasingly, both business units and corporations must compete globally† (p. xv). Dalic (2007) calls it â€Å"the convergence of cultures† (p. 4). The climate has long-term impacts on the industry though it may be a while before a particular company begins to feel the impact of climatic changes. They are a very strong motivation behind the strategy process. Before a construction company develops its strategy, it is beneficial and maybe crucial for it to determine what its environment looks like. This allows it to forecast the impact of its present actions thereby providing it with the range of presently available options and the limits within which it can operate profitably. The application of strategy and the strategy process allows an organization to determine two important contexts in strategic planning and strategic management. These are strategic fit and strategic foresight. Strategic Fit Strategic fit looks at the present. It refers to the process where an organization examines its current position to ascertain whether it is sitting squarely on its best possible footing or whether there is a mismatch, based on its objectives. In the built environment, a company looks at whether its level of staffing and financing corresponds to the available opportunities. The resulting plan from the process is a strategic plan to give the organization a better placement within its business context. Robert (2005) recognizes the need for strategic fit when he states, â€Å"For a strategy to be successful, it must be consistent with the firm’s external environment and with the characteristics of the firm’s internal environment- its goals and values, resources and capabilities, and structure and systems† (p. 14). Construction projects normally take very long from ideation to completion, and it is normal for v ery drastic changes in the business enviroment to occur within the life of the project. By seeking to attain strategic fit, a construction company ensures it takes advantage of the present opportunities which may dissapear because of environmental change. Strategic fit is the result of implementing measures concluded upon after conducting an environmental scan during the strategy process. Strategy and the strategy process may provide organizations in the built environment with the ability to determine their strategic fit to ensure that they are currently using their resources to the best effect. However, due to the dynamic environment in the present business context, for a small outfit such as small to medium enterprise construction industy, the strategy process considerations may pose challenges to them in utilizing their resources to the best outcome as it is somewhat restrictive in terms of time, cost and resource availability. Strategic Focus/Foresight On the other hand, strateg ic foresight, also known as strategic focus, refers to the preferred position of an organization usually at some point in the future. By looking at the medium and long-term opportunities, a construction company may find certain desirable positions they would prefer to occupy at that future date. Strategic foresight considers all the forces acting on the business environment within which the organization operates and seeks to determine their impact on the long-term objectives of the organization. This prepares it to take advantage of arising opportunities and prepares it to handle future challenges. â€Å"One of the biggest challenges facing executive teams is lack of strategic focus† (Daughtry Casselman, 2009, p. 7). Its long-term nature makes it easy to ignore especially for small construction companies with severe resource constraints. The pressure of the present seems to make strategic foresight an unnecessary burden on already overworked executives. By drawing on strateg y and the strategy process, a construction company creates strategic focus on its executives, thereby preparing them to handle the challenges the company will face in the future. It assures the long-term survival of the company. It is tempting to look at the strategy process in terms of strategic foresight without considering the implications of strategic fit on the desired future. Organizations in the built environment need to know that strategic foresight without strategic fit results in â€Å"a plan for the future without a plan for the present† (Wall, 2004, p. 13). On the other hand, strategic fit without strategic focus gurantees the present at the expense of the future. Hence, the outcome should be a balanced strategy where there should be a constant review of the corporate strategy and its implication on present and future resources, and the competitive advantage in the market place. Reference List Bacharach, S.B. (1989) Organizational Theories: Dome Criteria for Evalu ation. The Academy of Management Review, 14(4), 496-515 Bourgeois III, L.T. (1984) Strategic Management and Determinism. The Academy of Management Review, 9(4), 586-596 Dalic, T. (2007) Globalization of Marketing Strategies in Light of Segmentation and Cultural Diversity. Norderstedt: GRIN Verlag. Daughtry, T.C. and Casselman, G.L., (2009) Executing Strategy: From Boardroom to Frontline. Herndon, VI: Capital Books. Harvard Business School (2005) Strategy: Create and Implement the Best Strategy for Your Business. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press. Henderson, B.D.(1991) Developing Strategy in C.A. Montgomery M.E. Porter, eds. Strategy: Seeking and Securing Competitive Advantage. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing Division. Li. Y and Peng, M.W. (2008) Developing theory from strategic management research in China, Asia Pacific Journal Manage, 25(3), 563-572. Mark, D. (2004) Strategy: A Step by Step Approach to the Developement and Presentation of World Class Business Strat egy. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Poppo, L. and Zenger T. (1998) Testing Alternative Theories of the Firm: Transaction Cost, Knowledge-Based, and Measurement Explanations for Make-or-Buy Decision in Information Services, Strategic Management Journal, 19, 853-887 Robert, M.G. (2005) Contemporary Strategy Analysis. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Smircich, L. and Stubbart C. (1985), Strategic Management in an Enacted World, The academy of Management Review, 10(4), 724-736. Teece, D.J., Pisano, G. and Shuen, A. (1997) Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management, Strategic Management Journal, 18(7), 509-533. Toffek, M.W. (2004) Strategic Management of Product Recovery, California Management Review, 46(2), 1-22 Venkatram, N. and Cumillus, J.C. (1984) Exploring the Concept of â€Å"Fit† in Strategic Management, The Academy of Management Review, 9(3), 513-525 Walker, G. (2004) Modern Competitive Strategy. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Wall, S.J. (2004) On the Fly: Executing S trategy in a Changing World. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons. D31BM – Business Management for Built Environment This essay on Strategy and Strategic Management was written and submitted by user Otto Skinner to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Euthanasia and a Right to Die essays

Euthanasia and a Right to Die essays I once heard this story a long time ago. I cant remember what I was doing at the time, and it is rare that I can remember a story in such detail, but when I do, I consider it has profound meaning. Wait, now I remember. I was working in a cancer ward and I took my break next to the patient rooms. Oddly enough, the place seemed dreadfully empty, except for one old man whom I suspect had cancer. I thought to myself there could not be any harm in having a conversation with him so I meandered over until I sat next to him. Without hesitation, he asked me, Have you ever seen anyone die? I never had, nor had I ever known anyone close to me die. Sure, thousands die on the news everyday, but Im completely desensitized to issues far away from home. So this question struck me as quite peculiar and I knew I was in for an interesting conversation. I did not want to sound boring, so I boasted that I had seen nearly every way a person can die. I left out the part that I had seen all those deaths on television. He gave me a smirk, but whether he was impressed or saw through my facade, I will never know. Hes probably dead now, you see. But I suspect it was the latter. So he began to tell me this story. It goes something like this. Not too long ago in a kingdom lived a king, and this king loved all the joys that life could bring. He especially loved to laugh, often waking up in the middle of the night laughing hysterically from a dream he had. All his advisors could not understand the source of his laughter. Indeed, they tried many methods to curtail his humor in the hopes that he would act more like a king than a jester. Finally, at their wits end, they decided that they should hold a great contest to find the best court jester to entertain the king. I think thats where the saying if you cant beat them, join them came from. Anyway, in the great court, the funniest men in the kingdom conve...

Macroeconomic - Market Rate of Interest Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Macroeconomic - Market Rate of Interest - Essay Example The cash rate can be changed by the mortgage as well as the rates of business loans. The aggregate economy is often influenced by monetary policy. Suppose the Reserve Bank deals in supplying more money to the commercial banks, those banks will attempt to keep the reserve rate at steady level and launch into lending more cash in the market. This will lead to a fall in the cash rate. The supply of funds can be increased by increasing the average maturity of the repos, expanding the private security ranges. The changes in the monetary policy will shed its effects on the interest rates in the short run and thus the relationship between the cash arte and the interest rates can be easily defined. But it should be kept in mind that the cash rate lacks the potential to determine the level of intermediary’s rates (Campbell, 1997). 2. Analyze the effects of a decrease in the interest rate on consumption and investment expenditures, the level of aggregate demand, the inflation and the un employment rates. Answer: The changes in the interest rates can shed effects on the consumption spending. With increase in the price levels the interest rates tends to increase. ... On the other hand the expenditures on consumption will decrease. Aggregate demand is expressed by AD = C + I + G + (X-M), where C= consumption, I= capital investment, G= government spending, and (X-M) = trade balance. When the interest rate falls, the capital investment rises and therefore the aggregate demand rises. The effect is just the opposite for rise in the level of interest rates. If the interest rates fall, the demand prevailing in the society for the goods as well as services will fall. Therefore the prices of the products will tend to fall being the resultant of fall in price. Decrease in demand will lead to less production and eventually unemployment rises. 3. Explain what is the meant by the credit creation process of the commercial banks and how it may be influenced by the expansionary monetary policy. Answer: The primary functions of banks include acceptance of deposits, remittance of funds, advancing loans, creation of credit and financing foreign trade. Creation of c redit is one of the unique functions of the bank. It is the responsibility of the banks to supply money to the traders as well as to the manufacturers. The banks are also involved in creating or manufacturing money. The deposits of the banks can be regarded as money. Such deposits can be compared with cash. The deposits can be used in purchasing goods as well as services. They can also be used in debt payments. The deposits of the customers are called primary deposits. The banks keep a certain part of the deposits in the form of reserves while the rest is made available for loans advancements. Therefore every deposit has the potential to create loan. The banks do not pay cash to the customer when it grants a loan to them. The bank simply credits the requisite or the loan amount in the

Financial Management of Information Systems Essay

Financial Management of Information Systems - Essay Example Customer service, operations, product and marketing strategies, and distribution are heavily, sometimes even entirely, dependent on IT. For example, the internet and intranets, and external inter-organizational networks, called extranets can provide the information infrastructure that a business needs, to make it more efficient and effective. Information systems perform three vital roles in any type of organization. They support business operations, guide managerial decision-making, and provide strategic and competitive advantage to the organization (ICFAI Center for Management Research, 2003). The hierarchical classification of an organization comprises three levels - operational, tactical, and strategic. The nature of decisions made at each level is different. Therefore, the information requirements at different levels are also different. At the operational level, a large quantity of data needs to be processed. This data is usually generated by business transactions with customers, suppliers etc. At the tactical level, the concern shifts from day-to-day decisions that have a short-term focus, to those which have a medium-term impact on the organization. Consolidated reports on the performance of various business units would be required to compare plans with actual, and to take remedial measures for any deviations. At the strategic level, in addition to the internal information, the decision-makers need information from the external environment as decisions at this level are taken in situations marked by uncertainty. The objective of using information technology in business is to determine business processes, which are relevant for applications, which will improve business performance. This may involve improvements in the efficiency of operations, in the quality of the management processes and even in the way; the business is conducted or organized. When it is targeted at operational efficiency, transaction processing becomes important. Transaction processing is a fundamental activity of every organization. Although an information system has a very important role to play in supporting management, ensuring control, and undertaking other knowledge work, such an emphasis should in no way, obscure its importance in transaction processing. Without transaction processing, normal functioning of an organization would be impossible, and the data for management information would not be available. Beyond such operational level, processing of data, information systems have specific applications in the various functions of an organization, like accounting etc. Information technology can benefit businesses in many ways. It helps businesses in performing various functions, solving business problems and pursuing business opportunities. Since organizations are goal-oriented, there should be a clear understanding of the type of information to be collected, stored and analyzed. Management can be categorized into top, middle and lower management. Due to the difference in the nature of decisions taken at different levels of management, their information needs also vary. This information should also be consistent with the requirement of the organizational level at which it is targeted. Accounting information systems are the oldest, and perhaps the most widely used information syste

The Bloom Box Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Bloom Box - Essay Example The technology bears a tremendous potential to offer abundant and cleaner electricity. I firmly hold that much work is needed to push the Bloom Box energy production process towards ‘greener’ energy. Bloom Box already attracts some of the biggest companies in the world as it first and primary customers. The technology also enjoys approval by a renowned venture capitalist (Springer 1). I believe that the technology is good enough to attract more venture capitalist to fund its expansion and increase its production capacity when need arises. Its initial customers have the financial might to buy its Bloom boxes. The sales revenue is significant to push research towards cost-efficient production. Based on these facts, the future of the company is bright. It can attract partners to strengthen its financial position and fund the development process. This is imperative in its efforts to reach the mainstream energy

Learners With Exceptionalities Make Up An Important Education Essay

Learners With Exceptionalities Make Up An Important Education Essay Learners with an exceptionality differ from their peers through their differences in requirements to learning and the classroom environment in regard to factors such as support systems, teaching methods, and social interaction with other learners and teachers. Learners with an exceptionality include those with learning disabilities, communication disorders, intellectual disabilities, behaviour disorders, and also gifted and talented students. Each group needs a special level and type of support for their individual learning needs. Because these learners make up the extreme ends of the learning spectrum, sometimes all areas of a learners schooling life have to be altered to cater for the individual. This can be from an intermittent, part-time basis to the learner requiring full-time support. However, the social interaction can be highly beneficial for students with an exceptionality, (Scruggs Mastropieri, 2007) and research shows this could be due to activities such as peer tutoring within classes. Because of these learners extra requirements on the teachers and supporting caregivers at school and home, (especially those with disabilities) this can eventually result in not only the search for funding for these learners, but over the long-term a strain on teachers and other learning professionals to create a continual individualized learning programme, unless strategies are implemented to create a positive and effective learning environment for both the learner and teacher. Exceptionality also has implications for the learner in school in terms of the learners relationships with others, but also the implications on the relationships between these individuals. For example, if the classroom environment is becoming stressful because of a students disruptive behaviour disorder, this can create negative relationships between other students parents and the teacher or school professionals. The spill over effect of only some learners needs being addressed can be very negatively impacting, and so encouraging a positive learning environment is essential. There are certain strategies related to the social cognitive theory that can help to create a positive learning environment. Furthermore, these strategies in teaching can be applied to not only students with exceptionalities but also to all students in different contexts of learning environments within schools at all ends of the learning spectrum. These strategies are modelling, vicarious learning, and self regul ation and can all be implemented into classroom applications at school as they help explain how learning happens. Attention, retention, reproduction and motivation are some of the essential processes that are involved in learning, and also in the social cognitive theory. The social cognitive theory explains learning by focusing on behaviour resulting from observing others (Eggen Kauchak, 2010, p. 179). This theory stems from behaviourism, which agrees with the social cognitive theory in three main ways, firstly both theories maintain that experience, the ideas of reinforcement or punishment, and feedback are essential to learning. However, the core elements of the social cognitive theory differs to behaviourism also in three ways, social cognitive theorists define learning as a change in mental processes that creates the capacity to demonstrate different behaviours (Eggen Kauchak, 2010, p. 180) which can be demonstrated in the teaching strategy of modelling, compared to behaviourists who define learning as a change in observable behaviour. Secondly, in the social cognitive theory beliefs, self perceptions and expectations are important. This is evident in the vicarious learning strategy which is strongly linked to expectations of the learner. Thirdly, social cognitive theorists believe that the environment, personal factors and behaviour rely on and affect one another. This is also called reciprocal causation. This is closely interconnected with self regulation, another essential learning tool. The main components of this theory are explained and discussed as teaching strategies which help learners to adapt their behaviour through seeing and interacting with others, therefore promoting a positive classroom environment for all students with and without an exceptionality. The three teaching strategies that are based on the social cognitive theory can be implemented in a school setting in a number of different ways. Firstly, modelling is one of the central concepts of the social cognitive theory and can be a very effective way of teaching, especially in terms of different age groups, different cultures and learners at all ends of the learning spectrum. Modelling refers to observing then making behavioural, cognitive, or affective changes as a result (Eggen Kauchak, 2010, p. 181). Modelling can be taught in three main forms, direct modelling, where the learner simply tries to copy the teachers behaviour. This is especially effective for children with a learning or intellectual disability, as it promotes and encourages learning (Scruggs Mastropieri, 2007) and also can be particular effective for children in the pre-operational stage as it not only can work well as an effective form of instructional scaffolding, but direct modelling can also be effective when demonstrated through models, simulations, and demonstrations. The hands on approach can be highly effective in encouraging higher order thinking in children with a learning disability. (Scruggs Mastropieri, 2007) Modelling in general is also important to the learning of students with an exceptionality because it encourages social interaction and development, with the result being cognitive development through accommodation and assimilation (Eggen Kauchak, 2010). Cognitive Modelling encourages social interactions between learners for both the students with exceptionalities and other students, and as the research and views of both Piaget and Vytkey suggest, social integration is essential for learning development. (Eggen Kauchak, 2010, p. 181). This can be demonstrated in the classroom environment by a teachers verbal or written explan ation of the cognitive and thought processes used while solving a problem or applying knowledge to aim for a result. This is also effective because it gives learners an insight into the intrinsic processes of their cognitive development, encouraging them to be self aware. The effects of modelling are large, as learners can acquire new behaviours, use existing behaviours in a new and different way, and their perception of their inhibitions and emotional reactions can also change (Eggen Kauchak, 2010). In a nutshell, modelling encourages learning through its positive effects on attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. Vicarious learning is also an important core concept of the social cognitive theory as it affects students expectations. Expectations are especially important for students with exceptionalities as a safe, supportive and routine environment are all essential factors in contributing to the learning and developmental achievement of these individuals within the school environment. (Buckley, Bird, Sacks Archer. 2006).Vicarious learning is an essential teaching strategy as people tend to imitate behaviour they see in others, so learners with an exceptionality can relate and learn effectively in this environment. This strategy can be implemented in the school or classroom environment by planning, implementing and monitoring rules and procedures in a variety of ways. Visual and written aids, such as charts, wall planners and visual cues can encourage positive and constructive learning behaviour and attitudes, as well as organizing groups within the class and using modelling or hands on acti vities. This has also been shown to lessen the frequency of behaviour problems occurring in some students with a learning disability (Scruggs Mastropieri, 2007). Vicarious learning is also a link to another teaching strategy of self regulation, which affects the learners motivation, ability to set goals and take responsibility for their own understanding and learning. By affecting learners expectations of their own ability this can have an effect on their behaviour and their environment. Self regulation requires consistency in teaching, in order for the students themselves to become consistent in self awareness and self monitoring ability. Consistency is also important in the students efforts to monitor their own progress and in their determination to succeed at their desired goals, making them accountable for their own learning. Reflective practice is also necessary for teachers with any strategy in the learning environment. This can be implemented in a variety of ways, such as conducting action research of the classroom environment in order to answer a specific question regarding learners with and/or without an exceptionality. Other ways te achers can use reflective practice is by using a diary or journal, creating aims and goals, testing those aims and goals, monitoring the progress of the students and then reviewing those aims and goals. This is inclusive of teaching self regulation, as it requires the teacher to constantly adapt and develop as the learner does. Understanding the issues for teaching professionals of learners with an exceptionality and their community is vastly important for all stakeholders involved. Openness, communication, knowledge and pedagogical knowledge amongst individuals is especially relevant in regards with decisions and plans relative to the learner, such as the I.E.P. These aspects are important and contributing factors to a learners development. In other words, instructional leadership, and collaboration together are important within a school to ensure the learners needs are met. Furthermore it is also important to note that although inclusive education in New Zealand can be effective with social and diverse benefits; many parents and families are choosing special education due to extensive resources that some inclusive education schooling environments may not have. Implementing the strategies discussed in inclusive education is costly. Adapting teaching strategies and the curriculum requires resources, and fun ding is an issue as there is a high demand from all different sectors such as inclusive versus special schools wanting a piece of the cake. (Eades, Leech Tuenter 2010). This is still being addressed for a number of reasons but could possibly be due to a general awareness of the limitations for learners with an exceptionality, and the effects and impact at large on the greater proportion of all other students in inclusive education. In conclusion, both the teacher and students can benefit from the number of teaching strategies demonstrated by the social cognitive theory. However the present impact on the learner in New Zealand is limited by financial constraints to implement these, and other learning strategies for students with an exceptionality. With a focus on results over reasons, perhaps the future of these learners will see the equal and effective teaching resources of their peers, through a focus on the empathy and understanding of their unique but equally important needs.

Use of Symbolism, Tone, and Irony in The Swimmer, by John Cheever Essay

Finding home boarded up; a sensation of coldness and unwelcoming takes over. Sudden misfortunes arise from what was once a perfect life, and the world appears upside-down. Attempts to remember what went wrong fail. Memories are unclear and time seems blurry. At one time, John Cheever found himself in this position, using alcohol to ignore his problems. John Cheever was born in Quincy, Massachusetts in 1912. In 1941, he moved to suburban Westchester and eventually became addicted to alcohol, which is a recurrent motif in many of his short stories. He died in 1982 from cancer. In his short story, "The Swimmer," an affluent man named Neddy Merrill decides to swim through all of the pools in his county to reach his own house. The neighbors welcome him at first, until a storm passes and everyone begins to regard him negatively. When he finally reaches home from his journey, he finds his house empty and boarded up. Just like the author, Ned suffered after he put aside his issues. John Cheever develops his theme that changes will inevitably come as time passes by in his short story "The Swimmer" through his use of symbolism, tone, and irony. At first glance,"The Swimmer" is literally a story about a man who swims through pools only to come home to an empty house- the symbolism makes it much more than that. One of the main symbols in "The Swimmer" is the swimming pools, which represent time periods. Halfway through the story, Ned reaches the Welchers and realises that they "had definitely gone away. [Their] pool furniture was folded, stacked, and covered with a tarpaulin" (Cheever). Unknown to Neddy, large amount of time has passed between the time he started his voyage and where he is now. Ned does not remember the Welchers' s... ...ss. Works Cited Blythe, Hal, and Charlie Sweet. "Man-Made vs. Natural Cycles: What Really Happens in 'The Swimmer..'" Studies in Short Fiction 27.3 (Summer 1990): 415-418. Rpt. in Short Story Criticism. Ed. Jelena O. Krstovic. Vol. 120. Detroit: Gale, 2009. Literature Resource Center. Web. 29 Jan. 2014. Cheever, John. The Swimmer. N.p.: Library of America, 2009. Print. Morace, Robert A. "The Swimmer: Overview." Reference Guide to Short Fiction. Ed. Noelle Watson. Detroit: St. James Press, 1994.Literature Resource Center. Web. 30 Jan. 2014. "The Swimmer." Short Story Criticism. Ed. Janet Witalec. Vol. 57. Detroit: Gale, 2003. Literature Resource Center. Web. 17 Feb. 2014. Watts, Harold H. "John Cheever: Overview." Reference Guide to American Literature. Ed. Jim Kamp. 3rd ed. Detroit: St. James Press, 1994. Literature Resource Center. Web. 18 Feb. 2014.